Asparsa Yoga in Vedantin and Buddhist framework using ideas from Gaudapada Karika
(Note Gaudapada Karika is a text which is antecedent to school of Sankara's Advaita )
The term 'asparsa-yoga' occurs only twice in the two hundred and fifteen verses of the Gauda padiya-Karika(GK). Its importance, however, should not be underestimated for it is connected to a
number of issues central to the distinctive position of the text as a whole. The notion of non-contact (asparsa) has a number of interesting connotations which place it in the forefront of early advaita philosophy. Firstly it can be seen as a negation of tactile experience. Touch (sparsa) is perhaps the most basic of the five sense-faculties excluding the mind (manas), which is sometimes treated as a sixth sense-faculty in India and with which we shall deal later.) Arguably
one could lose any one of the other four senses and yet still grasp the idea of 'externality'. However, if one had no sense of touch it is doubtful that the boundary between 'self and 'other' would have developed at all. Certainly the ability to make a distinction between oneself as subject and everything else as object seems to be based to a greater or lesser degree upon the concept of 'externality'; a concept which we derive from our tactile experience of bodily boundaries.
Equally, if there is no sense of touch, there can be no feeling of pain. Thus, 'asparsa' is also connected to the soteriological aim of the cessation of suffering (dukkha).
As with the English terms 'touch' and 'contact', 'sparsa' may also refer to sensory contact in general rather than specifically to tactile experience. The meditative practice of sensory withdrawal (pratyahara) is the prevention of contact between the sense-faculties and their respective objects. The notion of contact also may be said to presuppose the notion of duality, for one cannot have contact without at least two participating principles. A denial of contact then may equally
be said to be linked to a denial of duality (dvaita).
The most obvious interpretation of 'asparsay oga' is that it denotes a form of meditative practice culminating in the realization of a state of non-contact (asparsa). A second possibility is that it is a technical term for the intended goal of such practice, i.e. a description of a meditative state. In this case the term 'asparsa-yoga' may be rendered in English by 'isolated-union', a phrase denoting something akin to the idea of 'kevaladvaita', the 'non-dualism of the isolated', an epithet
sometimes used to describe ~Sankara''s conception of Advaita. Asparia is a term which also conveys the very nature of Brahman as the Absolute; Brahman is the non-relative, that which exhibits no
relations, that which is unaffected by change. If we are to pinpoint precisely what the term 'aspara-yoga' denotes, we must consider both of the above mentioned possibilities.
The question of Buddhist influence on the Gaudapada-Karika has been discussed elsewhere with regard to the central doctrine of non- origination (ajativada) expounded in the text. It is not my intention to spend too much time discussing the question of the origins of the GK's conception of yoga. This is for a number of reasons. Firstly we have comparatively little to go on in the text itself which would enable us to differentiate Gaudapadian yoga from other forms of meditative
practice current at the time. Secondly it seems to me that the question of whether Gaudapadian yoga is Buddhist or Vedantic origin is something of a pseudo-problem. Yoga is a pan-Indian phenomenon
and similar techniques are adopted by different religious schools. In the Buddhist tradition for instance, one finds the simultaneous adoption of two forms of meditative technique; one involving tech-
niques of concentration intended to promote a greater quiescence of the mind (samatha), the other utilizing techniques leading to greater awareness and insight (vipsayana). The relationship between these two is complex and a matter of considerable debate within the Buddhist tradition itself. Nevertheless the predominant view seems to be that insight-meditation (vipasyana-yoga) is the unique invention of the Buddha. The various techniques for calming the mind (samatha) are
usually said to be pre-Buddhist meditative practices, utilized by the Buddha and his followers for the promotion of greater degrees of mental concentration (samadhi). In consonance with this, the Buddhist
scheme of the Jhanas are usually taken by the Buddhist to be part of the meditative practice of calming (samatha).
Knowledge, however, is only to be gained through the adoption of some form of 'insight'
(prajna/vipasyana) meditation at certain appropriate points. Calming meditation (samatha) practised by itself is believed to lead to nothing more than a pacification of the mind.
Needless to say, this two-fold division of yogic technique is not accepted by the orthodox (astika) systems of Hindu philosophy. In the upanisads, for instance, dhyana (cognate with Buddhist jhana i.e. samatha meditation), involves both mental pacification (Buddhist samatha) and insight (Buddhist prajna) into the nature of reality.
Thus it would be rather presumptuous of us to take either Buddhist or Vedantic conceptions of yoga in an apriori or definitive form, since here is clearly a different sense attributed to certain important technical terms (such as dhyana (jhana)) in the different religious
traditions of India.
ASPARSA-YOGA AS MEDITATIVE TECHNIQUE
The most obvious usage of the term asparsayoga is as a specific name for a form of meditative practice aiming at complete detachment, that is non-contact in the strictest sense. This is a familiar aspect of all forms of yoga to some extent and is inextricably bound up with the
notion of pratyahara- the withdrawal of the sense-faculties.
The term 'yoga' appears for the first time in the upanisadic literature in Taittiriya Upanisad 2.4 where it is used in connection with the notion of a cognising self (vijnanamaya atma). In Katha Upanisad II. 3. 10--11 yoga is defined as the concentrated stability of the sense-organs
(sthiram indriyadharanam), based upon the practice of sense-withdrawal (Pratyahara)
When the five senses of knowledge (panca jnanani) come to rest together with the
mind (manas), and the intellect (buddhi), too, does not function -- that state they call
the highest (paramam gatim). They consider that keeping of the senses steady as yoga.
One becomes vigilant (apramatta) at that time, for yoga is subject to growth and
decay
Again in the Maitrayaniya Upanisad we find a sixfold path of yoga
The precept for effecting this [ unity ] is this: restraint of the breath
withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), concentration (dharana),
contemplation (tarka), absorption (samadhi). Such is said to be the sixfold yoga...
In the classical yoga of eight limbs (astanga) sense-withdrawal is the fifth external limb (bahiranga) and is a fundamental prerequisite for the attainment of the inner limbs (antaranga) of concentration
(dharana), meditation (dhyana), and enstasy (samadhi). In the Bhagavad Gita the relinquishing of all sensory contacts (sparsa) is described in the following terms:
And when he draws in on every side his senses from their respective objects as a
tortoise [draws in] its limbs, the wisdom (prajna ) of this one is firmly established (pratisthita).
His self detached from contacts with the outside world, in [him[ self he finds his
joy, [his] self in Brahman joined by yoga he finds unfailing joy.
For the pleasures that men derive from contacts assuredly give rise to pain, having
a beginning and an end. In these a wise man (budhah) takes no delight.
All contact with things outside he puts away, fixing his gaze between the eyebrows;
inward and outward breaths he makes the same as they pass up and down the
nostrils.
At first sight then 'asparsa-yoga' seems to be a reference to the meditative practice of sensory withdrawal (pratyahara). Such a technique inevitably leads to a state of consciousness devoid of sensory stimuli. This is a state of non-contact (asparsa) or disunion (asamyoga)
between consciousness (citta) and sense-object (visaya).
1.1. The Four States of Experience in the 'Agama-prakarana' (GK I)
The 1st chapter of the Gaudapada Karika, often called the Agama- prakarana, is an exposition of the main themes found in the Mandukya Upanisad. The most important of these, as far as the
GK's conception of yoga is concerned, is the analysis of experience into four levels or 'states' (pada) of consciousness.
These states are waking (jagarita, visva), dreaming (svapna, taijasa), deep sleep (susupta,
prajna) and turiya, the fourth indescribable state.
There is a gradation of increasingly more refine experience moving from the gross objects of waking experience, through the dream state to the lack of sense-object (visaya) in deep sleep. In deep sleep all that is experienced is bliss (ananda). It is a mere 'mass of cognition' (prajnanaghana) and does not apprehend anything.
It is our attachment to these experiences that causes the suffering (duhkha) of transmigration. However, if we understand the true nature of these states we will be uncontaminated by them.
In the last analysis turiya is the only real state. It is not really a fourth state but in fact the
only state.
Able to bring about the cessation of all suffering, powerful, immutable and divine,
the non-dual [essence] of all beings (bhava); the all pervading one is traditionally
known as turiya (the fourth),
When the jiva, asleep due to beginningless maya is awakened, it then realises the
unborn, sleepless, dreamless, non-duality.
The scene is set for an appraisal of the sole reality of turiya. One has to awaken from the other states of 'normative' experience in order to understand the so-called 'fourth' state. The description of it as unborn, sleepless, dreamless, and non-dual, provides a sharp contrast with the nature of the three other states.
Turiya is untouched by the experiences of these states just as one is unaffected by the imagined
experiences of a dream when one returns to the waking state. The implication of this idea is that turiya is the true state of experience -- we are all 'in' turiya; we are just unaware of that fact. Thus in a very real sense we are all already liberated; our mistake is merely in our failure to apprehend this basic fact of our experience.
1.2. Meditation on the Phoneme OM
Towards the end of the first prakaran, a the text provides us with an exposition of the OM symbolism found in the Mandukya Upanisad;
the letter 'A' of 'A-U-M' corresponds to the waking state of consciousness, 'U' to the dream state, and 'M' to the state of deep sleep.
Meditation upon these letters and their intrinsic connection with the various states of consciousness will lead the aspirant to an understanding of the nature of their complex inter-relationship and the 'fragmentary' view that these states provide. It is only upon realization of the whole, that is, OM or turiya, that reality can be properly understood.
There can be no pathway to the 'measureless' and 'limitless' reality (amatra). It can only be attained by a dialectical analysis of the 'limited'. Strictly speaking, one cannot even talk of the attainment of turiya since it is the one and only, unchanging 'state' of reality.
One should fix the mind upon the syllable OM;
OM is Brahman the fearless;
for the one who is permanently fixed upon OM,
there is no fear whatsoever to be found.
OM indeed is the beginning, the middle,
and likewise the end itself of all things,
Having indeed known Pranava thus,
one attains to that [Brahman] immediately
This latter verse assimilates the OM symbolism with one of the standard 'tenets' of Gaudapadian philosophy, the assumption that for something to be real it must exist in the beginning, middle and end.
This presupposition is based upon the immutability of nature ( GK III. 21, IV. 7 and 29) and forms the fundamental logical framework for the development of the GK's radical
absolutism.
The relationship between turiya and the other three states is analogous to the relationship between OM and the letters A, U and M. Just as OM encompasses the entire range of syllables (from the
opening of the mouth with 'A' to the closing of it with 'M'), turiya is the all encompassing ground of all diversity -- as OM transcends its portions (matra), so does turiya transcend the three states of experience. Our experience of diversity then, is firmly grounded in a perception of Brahman; as we perceive the experiential equivalents of A, U. or M, what we are actually perceiving ultimately is the non-dual Brahman itself
II. ASPARSAYOGA AS A DESCRIPTION OF THE
ULTIMATE STATE
As we have seen the term 'asparsayoga' is often taken to be a specific name for a form of meditative practice leading to a complete cessation of perceptual activity. As such it is usually rendered by the English 'the yoga of no-contact'. Some scholars, however, have argued that
aspargayoga is a description of ultimate reality, a sort of kaivalya-type isolation
aspargayoga is more a path of insight into the nondual nature of mind and the birthlessness of the universe than it is a form of yogic meditation-exercise to control ....... It is to this doctrine of emptiness or nonorigination which the term asparsayoga refers, because there is nothing to contact or touch when one knows that nothing has come into being, hence the term 'free from touch' or a-sparsa.
idea that the mind never comes into contact (asparsa) with an external object. This interpretation is given added strength once we realize that as far as the GK is concerned there is no real possibility of following a meditative path since nothing has ever come into existence in the first place. However, it must be noted that in various places the text does stress the need to control one's mind through the practice of meditation. It may be the case that nothing has ever come into existence, but for us to be fully aware of that fact we need to practice some form of yoga.
We noticed in the first prakarana that we are urged to meditate upon the meaning and denotation of the syllable OM. This in itself is an exhortation to a certain form of meditative practice. In the third prakarana we are again urged to control the flow of the mind in an
attempt to realize our essential non-difference from Brahman. Vyasa in his commentary on the Yoga-sutra states that 'Yoga is samadhi'.
It would be a mistake to take this to mean that Vyasa does not accept that there is such a thing as the practice of yoga -- clearly he does. In this instance it is obviously an example of defining a practice in terms of its experiential goal, viz. the attainment of samadhi. Likewise, despite the fact that the author of the GK believes in non-origination, this does not necessarily exclude the possibility of following a specific religious path on the conventional (samvrti) level. Ultimately, of
course, the practice of yoga can be of no consequence since only Brahman is, but, strange as it might seem, if we do not practice yoga we will not realize this fact.
It is easy to become embroiled in such paradoxical problems as those found in the doctrine of non-origination, but in this instance I think it would be fruitless. Suffice it to say that, despite the fact that reality is unoriginated, the author of the GK wants us to realize this fact for ourselves in order that we may alleviate the suffering caused by our belief in a changing world of plurality. This suffering of course is ultimately an illusion, but that fact in itself does not help those who
partake of the illusion. Some form of practice is necessary to liberate us from our own attachments and preconceptions. In fact, one could argue that the very paradoxicality of the Gaudapada-Karika's understanding of yoga is expressed in the name which the text applies to it:
'asparsayoga'. The word is something of a contradiction in terms since one half of the compound denotes a state of separation, a state of no-contact while the other half denotes an implicit act of union, the 'joining' of 'yoga'. This paradox perhaps reflects the impossibility of describing the ultimate (paramartha) and non-conceptual (nirvikalpa) in conventional (samvrti) terms.
To use one of Mircea Eliade's favourite terms, 'asparsa-yoga' is an example of coincidentia opposi-
torum -- the coincidence of opposites, a characteristic feature of many mystical philosophies.
ILl. The Attainment of 'Gnosis (Jnana)' in the GK
The Gaudapada Karika does not appear to make any technical distinction between the terms manas, citta, and vijnana, all of which are used in general to denote mundane 'consciousness'. The goal of the practice of yoga in the GK, however, is the cessation of mental activity or the state of no-mind (amanasta). This is interesting since there is no occurence of any of the three terms used to denote mundane consciousness in the last twenty-three verses of the fourth
prakarana. Instead we find reference to jnana, a term which clearly denotes a type of intuitive knowledge or gnosis. Jnana differs from vijnana insofar as it is devoid of the fluctuations of consciousness ( vijnana / citta -- cala / spandita).
Earlier in the second prakaran, a, embedded in a list of 'entities' (bhava) mistakenly thought to be the atman, the text refers to those who believe that the self is mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), or
consciousness (citta). From this it would seem that the text does not accept the equation of atman with ordinary consciousness except in the broader sense where, in actual fact, everything is to be equated with atman. In the third and fourth prakaranas, the goal of yoga is
specifically described as a state of no-mind (amanasta).
This duality, comprising the moveable and the immoveable, is perceived by the mind;
when the mind has become non-mind, duality is not experienced,
When by knowledge of the truth about Atman, [the mind] ceases to imagine,
it is in the state of mindlessness; there is no perception in the absence of a perceptible [object]
The denial of the ultimate reality of the mind is a blow to all who wish to read subjective idealism into the Gaudapada Karika In GK I. 18 the view that the world is imagined by someone is expressly refuted.
Manas is part of the phenomenal world of dualism and as such is not an ultimate reality (paramartha-satya). The inappropriateness of equating the self (atman) with the mind (manas) is established in many upanisadic texts. In Mund.aka Upanisad II. 1.2--3 for instance,
the unborn Purusa is described as 'without mind' (amanas) -- being the originator and supporter of all things (including the mind), without thereby being qualifiable by them.
In the Taittiriya Upanisad (itself referred to in GK IlL 11), one of the five sheaths (kosa) is the self made of mind (manomaya). This is not the deepest level of reality, since within this is the sheath of understanding (vijnana-mayakosa) and the sheath of bliss (anandamayakosa).
That the type of non-dual awareness of the ultimate envisaged by the Gaudapada-Karikais similar in many respects to the views attributed to the sage Yajnavalkya in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
(that the GK has been influenced by the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad is beyond question -- karikas 25 and 26 of GK III even quote from the text). Such a non-dualistic state is not devoid of awareness.
On the contrary, it is a deep insight into the nature of reality. Nevertheless, "there are no notions (samjna) here. ' The cognising self (prajnatman) knows no distinctions, continues Yajnavalkya, as in sexual intercourse.
The term, and its equivalent, 'cessation of sensation and conceptualization' (samjnavedayitanirodha) denote a specific very precisely defined altered state of consciousness, one which occurs as the direct result of specified meditative techniques. Consequently, the equation of asparsayoga with the Buddhist nirodhasamapatti is not without some difficulties. Nevertheless this is a question that time will not allow us to pursue.
Just as a dream and illusion and a castle in the air are seen, so is seen this whole universe by those well-versed in the Vedantas.The idea that the world is like a dream is given philosophical
backing in the second and fourth prakaranas where the GK continues its exposition of the truth of non-origination through an analysis of the waking and dream states of consciousness. Between them, these two states constitute our entire experience of diversity. Thus, any attempt to derive the doctrines of non-origination (ajativada), and non-dualism (advaita) from empirical experience must deal with the appearance of such diversity.
The common sense realist argues that waking and dream experience fundamentally differ. Perceptions in the waking state correspond to a real, substantial and external world, while experiences in the dream state are figments of our imagination, merely existing 'in the mind'.
The GK subverts this distinction with a series of arguments designed to show the similarlity of the two states.
Waking experience is claimed to have a practical utility and a continuity that is not found in a dream. Against this the GK argues hat the utility of waking experience is in fact contradicted by virtue of the fact that it is constantly interrupted by dreams. The commentator (Sankara?) points out that just as eating food in a dream will not satisfy the waking person, one can eat a huge meal whilst awake and yet still dream that one has not eaten for days. If dreams displayed no
coherence for the agent, it would be impossible to make any sense of such experiences whilst they were occuring.
The weird and wonderful character of dreams is determined by the particular state of the dreaming subject (sthanidharma). What is strange from the perspective of the waking state is in fact a normality for the dreamer. Even the distinction between inner thought and outer perception can be found in the dream state. If this were not so, one would always be a lucid dreamer i.e. one would always know that one was in a dream, and this is quite obviously not the case. The same
distinctions can be found in both the waking and the dream states.
Thus the two states are taken to be one.
According to the GK the correct criterion for dismissing dream experiences as non-veridical (vitatha) is their lack of continuity -- i.e. at some time or other the dream world is contradicted by the experience of the other states of consciousness. This criterion of course also applies to the waking state. The only time that we 'step outside' waking experience is when we are in one of the other states of consciousness, i.e. dream, deep sleep, or meditation (samadhi). In all three
of these other spheres, the world as we experience it in the waking state is contradicted.
Thus, IV. 25 states that:-
From a logical point of view it is held that a designation (prajnapti) has an objective reference (nimitta); from the point of view of reality, it is said that [there is] no objective-reference for an objective-referent.
Perception is based upon the possibility of 'contact' (sparsa) between a perceiver and a perceived object. An attack upon this notion then is fundamental to an attack upon all 'realist' theories of perception. The Nyaya-sutra, for instance, defines perception (pratyaksa) as "the
determinate, unnamed and unerring knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense organ with its object. ''This is an inherently dualistic understanding of experience and as such is clearly unacceptable to the non-dualistic author of the Gaudapada Karika. An attack upon the notion of 'contact' is fundamental to a thorough-going non- dual theory of perception. In fact it is the GK's position that:
Consciousness does not make contact with an object, nor even the appearance of an
object. In fact, the object is unreal, and the appearance of the object is not different.
The idea implicit in the Gaudapadiananalysis of perception is that in order to be aware or to experience something, one has to have that thing before the mind. If experience requires contact between the mind and its object -- then that object cannot be separate from the
mind in the sense that we believe that it is. As such 'asparsa' is a corollary of the theory of the non-duality of consciousness (advayavada), there being no possibility of contact in a non-dualistic
(advaya) realm. As we shall see, the doctrine of the non-duality of consciousness (vijnana-advaya) is endorsed by the Gaudapadiya Karika in agreement with the Yogacarins.
Thus, upon analysis, 'sparsa' must really be 'contact' between two things already intimately connected. In effect 'sparsa becomes 'asparsa' for it is the realization that one can only come into contact with that with which one is already in contact.
Perceived by the mind of the waking one, [ these things ] do not exist apart from it.
Similarly, the perceived thing is said to be merely the mind in the waking state. ~
Reality is non-dual (advaita), untouched (asparsa) and non-relational (asahga). This is the realization of aspariayoga, the goal of the GK's soteriological system. It is a state of non-contact, following on from the dissolution of all mental activity (amanasta). Thus, "when the mind has become no-mind, duality is not experienced".
A more comprehensive understanding of the status of maya can be drawn from an analysis of the GK's use of analogies.
The relationship between the world and Brahman is like that between a rope and its false appearance as a snake. Thus,
As a rope not clearly seen in the dark, is falsely imagined to be things like a snake
or a stream etc., so likewise is atman falsely imagined,
Just as the imagined thing (vikalpa) disappears when the rope is clearly seen as a
rope, so is atman clearly seen as the non-dual (advaita). The world of diversity has the status of a false imagination (vikalpa); it s like the snake, a misconception, which nevertheless has its basis in
the rope.
Conclusion
The term 'asparsa-yoga' occurs only twice in the two hundred and fifteen verses of the Gauda padiya-Karika(GK). Its importance, however, should not be underestimated for it is connected to a
number of issues central to the distinctive position of the text as a whole. The notion of non-contact (asparsa) has a number of interesting connotations which place it in the forefront of early advaita philosophy. Firstly it can be seen as a negation of tactile experience. Touch (sparsa) is perhaps the most basic of the five sense-faculties excluding the mind (manas), which is sometimes treated as a sixth sense-faculty in India and with which we shall deal later.) Arguably
one could lose any one of the other four senses and yet still grasp the idea of 'externality'. However, if one had no sense of touch it is doubtful that the boundary between 'self and 'other' would have developed at all. Certainly the ability to make a distinction between oneself as subject and everything else as object seems to be based to a greater or lesser degree upon the concept of 'externality'; a concept which we derive from our tactile experience of bodily boundaries.
Equally, if there is no sense of touch, there can be no feeling of pain. Thus, 'asparsa' is also connected to the soteriological aim of the cessation of suffering (dukkha).
As with the English terms 'touch' and 'contact', 'sparsa' may also refer to sensory contact in general rather than specifically to tactile experience. The meditative practice of sensory withdrawal (pratyahara) is the prevention of contact between the sense-faculties and their respective objects. The notion of contact also may be said to presuppose the notion of duality, for one cannot have contact without at least two participating principles. A denial of contact then may equally
be said to be linked to a denial of duality (dvaita).
The most obvious interpretation of 'asparsay oga' is that it denotes a form of meditative practice culminating in the realization of a state of non-contact (asparsa). A second possibility is that it is a technical term for the intended goal of such practice, i.e. a description of a meditative state. In this case the term 'asparsa-yoga' may be rendered in English by 'isolated-union', a phrase denoting something akin to the idea of 'kevaladvaita', the 'non-dualism of the isolated', an epithet
sometimes used to describe ~Sankara''s conception of Advaita. Asparia is a term which also conveys the very nature of Brahman as the Absolute; Brahman is the non-relative, that which exhibits no
relations, that which is unaffected by change. If we are to pinpoint precisely what the term 'aspara-yoga' denotes, we must consider both of the above mentioned possibilities.
The question of Buddhist influence on the Gaudapada-Karika has been discussed elsewhere with regard to the central doctrine of non- origination (ajativada) expounded in the text. It is not my intention to spend too much time discussing the question of the origins of the GK's conception of yoga. This is for a number of reasons. Firstly we have comparatively little to go on in the text itself which would enable us to differentiate Gaudapadian yoga from other forms of meditative
practice current at the time. Secondly it seems to me that the question of whether Gaudapadian yoga is Buddhist or Vedantic origin is something of a pseudo-problem. Yoga is a pan-Indian phenomenon
and similar techniques are adopted by different religious schools. In the Buddhist tradition for instance, one finds the simultaneous adoption of two forms of meditative technique; one involving tech-
niques of concentration intended to promote a greater quiescence of the mind (samatha), the other utilizing techniques leading to greater awareness and insight (vipsayana). The relationship between these two is complex and a matter of considerable debate within the Buddhist tradition itself. Nevertheless the predominant view seems to be that insight-meditation (vipasyana-yoga) is the unique invention of the Buddha. The various techniques for calming the mind (samatha) are
usually said to be pre-Buddhist meditative practices, utilized by the Buddha and his followers for the promotion of greater degrees of mental concentration (samadhi). In consonance with this, the Buddhist
scheme of the Jhanas are usually taken by the Buddhist to be part of the meditative practice of calming (samatha).
Knowledge, however, is only to be gained through the adoption of some form of 'insight'
(prajna/vipasyana) meditation at certain appropriate points. Calming meditation (samatha) practised by itself is believed to lead to nothing more than a pacification of the mind.
Needless to say, this two-fold division of yogic technique is not accepted by the orthodox (astika) systems of Hindu philosophy. In the upanisads, for instance, dhyana (cognate with Buddhist jhana i.e. samatha meditation), involves both mental pacification (Buddhist samatha) and insight (Buddhist prajna) into the nature of reality.
Thus it would be rather presumptuous of us to take either Buddhist or Vedantic conceptions of yoga in an apriori or definitive form, since here is clearly a different sense attributed to certain important technical terms (such as dhyana (jhana)) in the different religious
traditions of India.
ASPARSA-YOGA AS MEDITATIVE TECHNIQUE
The most obvious usage of the term asparsayoga is as a specific name for a form of meditative practice aiming at complete detachment, that is non-contact in the strictest sense. This is a familiar aspect of all forms of yoga to some extent and is inextricably bound up with the
notion of pratyahara- the withdrawal of the sense-faculties.
The term 'yoga' appears for the first time in the upanisadic literature in Taittiriya Upanisad 2.4 where it is used in connection with the notion of a cognising self (vijnanamaya atma). In Katha Upanisad II. 3. 10--11 yoga is defined as the concentrated stability of the sense-organs
(sthiram indriyadharanam), based upon the practice of sense-withdrawal (Pratyahara)
When the five senses of knowledge (panca jnanani) come to rest together with the
mind (manas), and the intellect (buddhi), too, does not function -- that state they call
the highest (paramam gatim). They consider that keeping of the senses steady as yoga.
One becomes vigilant (apramatta) at that time, for yoga is subject to growth and
decay
Again in the Maitrayaniya Upanisad we find a sixfold path of yoga
The precept for effecting this [ unity ] is this: restraint of the breath
withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), concentration (dharana),
contemplation (tarka), absorption (samadhi). Such is said to be the sixfold yoga...
In the classical yoga of eight limbs (astanga) sense-withdrawal is the fifth external limb (bahiranga) and is a fundamental prerequisite for the attainment of the inner limbs (antaranga) of concentration
(dharana), meditation (dhyana), and enstasy (samadhi). In the Bhagavad Gita the relinquishing of all sensory contacts (sparsa) is described in the following terms:
And when he draws in on every side his senses from their respective objects as a
tortoise [draws in] its limbs, the wisdom (prajna ) of this one is firmly established (pratisthita).
His self detached from contacts with the outside world, in [him[ self he finds his
joy, [his] self in Brahman joined by yoga he finds unfailing joy.
For the pleasures that men derive from contacts assuredly give rise to pain, having
a beginning and an end. In these a wise man (budhah) takes no delight.
All contact with things outside he puts away, fixing his gaze between the eyebrows;
inward and outward breaths he makes the same as they pass up and down the
nostrils.
At first sight then 'asparsa-yoga' seems to be a reference to the meditative practice of sensory withdrawal (pratyahara). Such a technique inevitably leads to a state of consciousness devoid of sensory stimuli. This is a state of non-contact (asparsa) or disunion (asamyoga)
between consciousness (citta) and sense-object (visaya).
1.1. The Four States of Experience in the 'Agama-prakarana' (GK I)
The 1st chapter of the Gaudapada Karika, often called the Agama- prakarana, is an exposition of the main themes found in the Mandukya Upanisad. The most important of these, as far as the
GK's conception of yoga is concerned, is the analysis of experience into four levels or 'states' (pada) of consciousness.
These states are waking (jagarita, visva), dreaming (svapna, taijasa), deep sleep (susupta,
prajna) and turiya, the fourth indescribable state.
There is a gradation of increasingly more refine experience moving from the gross objects of waking experience, through the dream state to the lack of sense-object (visaya) in deep sleep. In deep sleep all that is experienced is bliss (ananda). It is a mere 'mass of cognition' (prajnanaghana) and does not apprehend anything.
It is our attachment to these experiences that causes the suffering (duhkha) of transmigration. However, if we understand the true nature of these states we will be uncontaminated by them.
In the last analysis turiya is the only real state. It is not really a fourth state but in fact the
only state.
Able to bring about the cessation of all suffering, powerful, immutable and divine,
the non-dual [essence] of all beings (bhava); the all pervading one is traditionally
known as turiya (the fourth),
When the jiva, asleep due to beginningless maya is awakened, it then realises the
unborn, sleepless, dreamless, non-duality.
The scene is set for an appraisal of the sole reality of turiya. One has to awaken from the other states of 'normative' experience in order to understand the so-called 'fourth' state. The description of it as unborn, sleepless, dreamless, and non-dual, provides a sharp contrast with the nature of the three other states.
Turiya is untouched by the experiences of these states just as one is unaffected by the imagined
experiences of a dream when one returns to the waking state. The implication of this idea is that turiya is the true state of experience -- we are all 'in' turiya; we are just unaware of that fact. Thus in a very real sense we are all already liberated; our mistake is merely in our failure to apprehend this basic fact of our experience.
1.2. Meditation on the Phoneme OM
Towards the end of the first prakaran, a the text provides us with an exposition of the OM symbolism found in the Mandukya Upanisad;
the letter 'A' of 'A-U-M' corresponds to the waking state of consciousness, 'U' to the dream state, and 'M' to the state of deep sleep.
Meditation upon these letters and their intrinsic connection with the various states of consciousness will lead the aspirant to an understanding of the nature of their complex inter-relationship and the 'fragmentary' view that these states provide. It is only upon realization of the whole, that is, OM or turiya, that reality can be properly understood.
There can be no pathway to the 'measureless' and 'limitless' reality (amatra). It can only be attained by a dialectical analysis of the 'limited'. Strictly speaking, one cannot even talk of the attainment of turiya since it is the one and only, unchanging 'state' of reality.
One should fix the mind upon the syllable OM;
OM is Brahman the fearless;
for the one who is permanently fixed upon OM,
there is no fear whatsoever to be found.
OM indeed is the beginning, the middle,
and likewise the end itself of all things,
Having indeed known Pranava thus,
one attains to that [Brahman] immediately
This latter verse assimilates the OM symbolism with one of the standard 'tenets' of Gaudapadian philosophy, the assumption that for something to be real it must exist in the beginning, middle and end.
This presupposition is based upon the immutability of nature ( GK III. 21, IV. 7 and 29) and forms the fundamental logical framework for the development of the GK's radical
absolutism.
The relationship between turiya and the other three states is analogous to the relationship between OM and the letters A, U and M. Just as OM encompasses the entire range of syllables (from the
opening of the mouth with 'A' to the closing of it with 'M'), turiya is the all encompassing ground of all diversity -- as OM transcends its portions (matra), so does turiya transcend the three states of experience. Our experience of diversity then, is firmly grounded in a perception of Brahman; as we perceive the experiential equivalents of A, U. or M, what we are actually perceiving ultimately is the non-dual Brahman itself
II. ASPARSAYOGA AS A DESCRIPTION OF THE
ULTIMATE STATE
As we have seen the term 'asparsayoga' is often taken to be a specific name for a form of meditative practice leading to a complete cessation of perceptual activity. As such it is usually rendered by the English 'the yoga of no-contact'. Some scholars, however, have argued that
aspargayoga is a description of ultimate reality, a sort of kaivalya-type isolation
aspargayoga is more a path of insight into the nondual nature of mind and the birthlessness of the universe than it is a form of yogic meditation-exercise to control ....... It is to this doctrine of emptiness or nonorigination which the term asparsayoga refers, because there is nothing to contact or touch when one knows that nothing has come into being, hence the term 'free from touch' or a-sparsa.
idea that the mind never comes into contact (asparsa) with an external object. This interpretation is given added strength once we realize that as far as the GK is concerned there is no real possibility of following a meditative path since nothing has ever come into existence in the first place. However, it must be noted that in various places the text does stress the need to control one's mind through the practice of meditation. It may be the case that nothing has ever come into existence, but for us to be fully aware of that fact we need to practice some form of yoga.
We noticed in the first prakarana that we are urged to meditate upon the meaning and denotation of the syllable OM. This in itself is an exhortation to a certain form of meditative practice. In the third prakarana we are again urged to control the flow of the mind in an
attempt to realize our essential non-difference from Brahman. Vyasa in his commentary on the Yoga-sutra states that 'Yoga is samadhi'.
It would be a mistake to take this to mean that Vyasa does not accept that there is such a thing as the practice of yoga -- clearly he does. In this instance it is obviously an example of defining a practice in terms of its experiential goal, viz. the attainment of samadhi. Likewise, despite the fact that the author of the GK believes in non-origination, this does not necessarily exclude the possibility of following a specific religious path on the conventional (samvrti) level. Ultimately, of
course, the practice of yoga can be of no consequence since only Brahman is, but, strange as it might seem, if we do not practice yoga we will not realize this fact.
It is easy to become embroiled in such paradoxical problems as those found in the doctrine of non-origination, but in this instance I think it would be fruitless. Suffice it to say that, despite the fact that reality is unoriginated, the author of the GK wants us to realize this fact for ourselves in order that we may alleviate the suffering caused by our belief in a changing world of plurality. This suffering of course is ultimately an illusion, but that fact in itself does not help those who
partake of the illusion. Some form of practice is necessary to liberate us from our own attachments and preconceptions. In fact, one could argue that the very paradoxicality of the Gaudapada-Karika's understanding of yoga is expressed in the name which the text applies to it:
'asparsayoga'. The word is something of a contradiction in terms since one half of the compound denotes a state of separation, a state of no-contact while the other half denotes an implicit act of union, the 'joining' of 'yoga'. This paradox perhaps reflects the impossibility of describing the ultimate (paramartha) and non-conceptual (nirvikalpa) in conventional (samvrti) terms.
To use one of Mircea Eliade's favourite terms, 'asparsa-yoga' is an example of coincidentia opposi-
torum -- the coincidence of opposites, a characteristic feature of many mystical philosophies.
ILl. The Attainment of 'Gnosis (Jnana)' in the GK
The Gaudapada Karika does not appear to make any technical distinction between the terms manas, citta, and vijnana, all of which are used in general to denote mundane 'consciousness'. The goal of the practice of yoga in the GK, however, is the cessation of mental activity or the state of no-mind (amanasta). This is interesting since there is no occurence of any of the three terms used to denote mundane consciousness in the last twenty-three verses of the fourth
prakarana. Instead we find reference to jnana, a term which clearly denotes a type of intuitive knowledge or gnosis. Jnana differs from vijnana insofar as it is devoid of the fluctuations of consciousness ( vijnana / citta -- cala / spandita).
Earlier in the second prakaran, a, embedded in a list of 'entities' (bhava) mistakenly thought to be the atman, the text refers to those who believe that the self is mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), or
consciousness (citta). From this it would seem that the text does not accept the equation of atman with ordinary consciousness except in the broader sense where, in actual fact, everything is to be equated with atman. In the third and fourth prakaranas, the goal of yoga is
specifically described as a state of no-mind (amanasta).
This duality, comprising the moveable and the immoveable, is perceived by the mind;
when the mind has become non-mind, duality is not experienced,
When by knowledge of the truth about Atman, [the mind] ceases to imagine,
it is in the state of mindlessness; there is no perception in the absence of a perceptible [object]
The denial of the ultimate reality of the mind is a blow to all who wish to read subjective idealism into the Gaudapada Karika In GK I. 18 the view that the world is imagined by someone is expressly refuted.
Manas is part of the phenomenal world of dualism and as such is not an ultimate reality (paramartha-satya). The inappropriateness of equating the self (atman) with the mind (manas) is established in many upanisadic texts. In Mund.aka Upanisad II. 1.2--3 for instance,
the unborn Purusa is described as 'without mind' (amanas) -- being the originator and supporter of all things (including the mind), without thereby being qualifiable by them.
In the Taittiriya Upanisad (itself referred to in GK IlL 11), one of the five sheaths (kosa) is the self made of mind (manomaya). This is not the deepest level of reality, since within this is the sheath of understanding (vijnana-mayakosa) and the sheath of bliss (anandamayakosa).
That the type of non-dual awareness of the ultimate envisaged by the Gaudapada-Karikais similar in many respects to the views attributed to the sage Yajnavalkya in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
(that the GK has been influenced by the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad is beyond question -- karikas 25 and 26 of GK III even quote from the text). Such a non-dualistic state is not devoid of awareness.
On the contrary, it is a deep insight into the nature of reality. Nevertheless, "there are no notions (samjna) here. ' The cognising self (prajnatman) knows no distinctions, continues Yajnavalkya, as in sexual intercourse.
One important difference between Yajnavalkya and the author of the GK, however, is that the former accords the highest status to the experience of deep sleep whereas the latter distinguishes
between the non-awareness of sleep (susupti) and the non-discursive awareness of samadhi (turiya). Nevertheless, it could be argued that the GK is merely expounding a more sophisticated blue-print of states of consciousness, developed from the ideas already found in such early texts as the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. In the state of deep sleep, which Yajnavalkya suggests brings forth knowledge of the true nature of the self, no sensory contacts are experienced.
between the non-awareness of sleep (susupti) and the non-discursive awareness of samadhi (turiya). Nevertheless, it could be argued that the GK is merely expounding a more sophisticated blue-print of states of consciousness, developed from the ideas already found in such early texts as the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. In the state of deep sleep, which Yajnavalkya suggests brings forth knowledge of the true nature of the self, no sensory contacts are experienced.
That it does not touch in that state is because, though touching then, it does not touch; for the toucher's function of touching can never be lost, because it is imperishable. But there is not that second thing separate from it which it can touch. Because when there is a duality, as it were, there one sees something, one smells something, one smells something, one tastes something, one hears something, one thinks something, one touches something, one knows something. But when tothe knower of Brahman everything has become the Self... then what should one touch?
•.. This self is That which has been described as 'Not this, not this, (NETI,NETI)
As I have suggested, the GK seems to make an implicit distinction between 'vijnana', the state of an active and diversifying consciousness, and 'jnana', a state of gnostic realization beyond the range of mundane consciousness. Jnana as such is the quiescence of all conscious activity. There is nothing strange in this idea; such a distinction can also be found in other philosophical texts and is perhaps
first pointed to in a Vedantic context in Chandogya Upanisad VII. where dhyana (meditation) and vijnana (understanding) are clearly differentiated.
first pointed to in a Vedantic context in Chandogya Upanisad VII. where dhyana (meditation) and vijnana (understanding) are clearly differentiated.
In the GK the images of perceiver and perceived (grahya-grahaka) are merely vibrations of mundane consciousness (vijnana) in its distracted (viksipta) aspect. Enlightenment (jnanaloka), however, is a radically transformative state where the mind no longer fuctions.
The third prakarana describes the proper control of mental activity as 'Brahman devoid of fear, with the illumination of jnana all around'.
In this condition:
[There is] samadhi, devoid of all expression, risen above all thought, completely quiescent, ever effulgent, unmoving and fearless.
Where there is no thought, there is no grasping and no letting go.
At that time jhdna, established in itself, s unborn and attains equanimity (samata).
This is [called] asparsa-yoga by name, [and] it is difficult for all yogins to attain it;
in fact, the yogins are afraid of it, seeing fear where there is no fear.
[There is] samadhi, devoid of all expression, risen above all thought, completely quiescent, ever effulgent, unmoving and fearless.
Where there is no thought, there is no grasping and no letting go.
At that time jhdna, established in itself, s unborn and attains equanimity (samata).
This is [called] asparsa-yoga by name, [and] it is difficult for all yogins to attain it;
in fact, the yogins are afraid of it, seeing fear where there is no fear.
It would appear from this that asparsayoga is a description of the highest form of non-conceptual enstasy (nirvikalpa samadhi). This, in fact, is the opinion put forward by Vidhushekara Bhattacharya, who suggested that asparsayoga was another name for the highest level of Buddhist meditative attainment -- nirodhasamapatti, the attainment of cessation, as However, as Griffiths notes in his discussion of the latter:
The term, and its equivalent, 'cessation of sensation and conceptualization' (samjnavedayitanirodha) denote a specific very precisely defined altered state of consciousness, one which occurs as the direct result of specified meditative techniques. Consequently, the equation of asparsayoga with the Buddhist nirodhasamapatti is not without some difficulties. Nevertheless this is a question that time will not allow us to pursue.
What should be noted, however, is the possibility that asparsayoga refers not to a set
of meditative practices but to a meditative state. Clearly the author of the GK believes that for many yoga practitioners its realization is difficult to achieve. This would seem to imply that aspars'ayoga is a goal rather than a method.
Aspars'ayoga is again referred to by name at the beginning of the fourth prakarana, where the author pays obesience to it.
I bow down to that which has been named the 'Yoga of No-contact' for the happiness
of all beings, beneficial, free from dispute and contradiction.
of meditative practices but to a meditative state. Clearly the author of the GK believes that for many yoga practitioners its realization is difficult to achieve. This would seem to imply that aspars'ayoga is a goal rather than a method.
Aspars'ayoga is again referred to by name at the beginning of the fourth prakarana, where the author pays obesience to it.
I bow down to that which has been named the 'Yoga of No-contact' for the happiness
of all beings, beneficial, free from dispute and contradiction.
The commentator says that: Asparsayoga is that yoga which has no contact or relationship with anything at any time; it is the very nature of Brahman. Thus, it is 'indeed so named'; as aspargayoga, it is well-known to the knowers of Brahman.
In the two instances where the Gaudapadiya-Karika explicitly uses the term 'asparsayoga', it draws particular attention to the fact that it is a specific, yet well known, designation. The commentator also mentions this fact, as we have seen above, saying that the term is well- known to the knowers of Brahman. This perplexity has cast doubt on the authenticity of the commentary as one of ~Sankara's works for the term 'aspargayoga', far from being a well-known Vedantic term, is not
to be found in any of the classical upanisads, nor, to my knowledge, can it be found explicitly in any work prior to the Gaudapadiya karika.
In the two instances where the Gaudapadiya-Karika explicitly uses the term 'asparsayoga', it draws particular attention to the fact that it is a specific, yet well known, designation. The commentator also mentions this fact, as we have seen above, saying that the term is well- known to the knowers of Brahman. This perplexity has cast doubt on the authenticity of the commentary as one of ~Sankara's works for the term 'aspargayoga', far from being a well-known Vedantic term, is not
to be found in any of the classical upanisads, nor, to my knowledge, can it be found explicitly in any work prior to the Gaudapadiya karika.
11.2. The Non-veridicality ('vaitathya') of Waking and Dream Experiences
Just as a dream and illusion and a castle in the air are seen, so is seen this whole universe by those well-versed in the Vedantas.The idea that the world is like a dream is given philosophical
backing in the second and fourth prakaranas where the GK continues its exposition of the truth of non-origination through an analysis of the waking and dream states of consciousness. Between them, these two states constitute our entire experience of diversity. Thus, any attempt to derive the doctrines of non-origination (ajativada), and non-dualism (advaita) from empirical experience must deal with the appearance of such diversity.
The common sense realist argues that waking and dream experience fundamentally differ. Perceptions in the waking state correspond to a real, substantial and external world, while experiences in the dream state are figments of our imagination, merely existing 'in the mind'.
The GK subverts this distinction with a series of arguments designed to show the similarlity of the two states.
Waking experience is claimed to have a practical utility and a continuity that is not found in a dream. Against this the GK argues hat the utility of waking experience is in fact contradicted by virtue of the fact that it is constantly interrupted by dreams. The commentator (Sankara?) points out that just as eating food in a dream will not satisfy the waking person, one can eat a huge meal whilst awake and yet still dream that one has not eaten for days. If dreams displayed no
coherence for the agent, it would be impossible to make any sense of such experiences whilst they were occuring.
The weird and wonderful character of dreams is determined by the particular state of the dreaming subject (sthanidharma). What is strange from the perspective of the waking state is in fact a normality for the dreamer. Even the distinction between inner thought and outer perception can be found in the dream state. If this were not so, one would always be a lucid dreamer i.e. one would always know that one was in a dream, and this is quite obviously not the case. The same
distinctions can be found in both the waking and the dream states.
Thus the two states are taken to be one.
According to the GK the correct criterion for dismissing dream experiences as non-veridical (vitatha) is their lack of continuity -- i.e. at some time or other the dream world is contradicted by the experience of the other states of consciousness. This criterion of course also applies to the waking state. The only time that we 'step outside' waking experience is when we are in one of the other states of consciousness, i.e. dream, deep sleep, or meditation (samadhi). In all three
of these other spheres, the world as we experience it in the waking state is contradicted.
Thus, IV. 25 states that:-
From a logical point of view it is held that a designation (prajnapti) has an objective reference (nimitta); from the point of view of reality, it is said that [there is] no objective-reference for an objective-referent.
There are in fact no objective grounds from which we can validate our own experience. With regard to the dream and waking states, both are false since both are limited, having a beginning and an end. Reality must always be. The only thing which stands the test is Brahman,
which is eternally unborn. All dualistic experience is false because it fails to live up to the standard of immutability. Thus,
which is eternally unborn. All dualistic experience is false because it fails to live up to the standard of immutability. Thus,
That which does not exist in the beginning and end, also [does not exist] in the present.
This is one of the most frequently repeated phrases of the Gaudapadiya karika for something to be real, it cannot ever have come into existence, or ever cease to be. It is a succinct statement of ajativada, the doctrine of non-origination.
I1.3. 'Enclosure' and the world within the mind
The second prakarana states that the cause of the unreality of objects in the dream state is their 'enclosure' (samvrtah.), that is their 'location within' (antahsthana). Karmarkar says that "Things seen in a dream are admitted to be false, because they are seen within the body in a
very limited space. '' Virtually all commentators follow this line of interpretation, stemming as it does from ~Sankara's (?) commentary.
There it is explained that objects experienced in a dream are unreal for 'mountains or elephants cannot possibly exist within the limited space of a body.'
However, in GK II. 4 the same reason is given for the unreality of objects in the waking state. What sense are we to make of the statement that extemal objects are unreal because they are 'enclosed' within the body? Although the 'spatial limitations' argument can be used against the veridicality of dream experiences (there being no problem here since common sense beliefs do not attribute externality to dream objects), the same argument fails to stand up to rational consideration when applied to waking experience.
The second prakarana states that the cause of the unreality of objects in the dream state is their 'enclosure' (samvrtah.), that is their 'location within' (antahsthana). Karmarkar says that "Things seen in a dream are admitted to be false, because they are seen within the body in a
very limited space. '' Virtually all commentators follow this line of interpretation, stemming as it does from ~Sankara's (?) commentary.
There it is explained that objects experienced in a dream are unreal for 'mountains or elephants cannot possibly exist within the limited space of a body.'
However, in GK II. 4 the same reason is given for the unreality of objects in the waking state. What sense are we to make of the statement that extemal objects are unreal because they are 'enclosed' within the body? Although the 'spatial limitations' argument can be used against the veridicality of dream experiences (there being no problem here since common sense beliefs do not attribute externality to dream objects), the same argument fails to stand up to rational consideration when applied to waking experience.
In the fourth prakarana, the falsity (mrsa) of the dream state is argued for on just
such grounds, again using the term samvrta, 'enclosed'. Thus, IV: 33
says:
All dharmas in a dream are false on account of their perception within the body.
How can there be the perception of existing things within this confined space?
such grounds, again using the term samvrta, 'enclosed'. Thus, IV: 33
says:
All dharmas in a dream are false on account of their perception within the body.
How can there be the perception of existing things within this confined space?
'Enclosure within the body' can hardly be the meaning of the term in the context of GK II. since it would make no sense to argue that the 'external' world of waking experience existed within our own body because the body itself is a material object and part of that world.
Besides IV. 33 is discussing dharmas not bhavas, which may be a
different case altogether. In this context, it seems more likely that the argument refers to 'enclosure within' the mind. This makes statements such as IV. 36 --
"all things perceived by the mind (citta) are insubstantial", appear more appropriate. On this understanding of the verses, it is our error in attributing 'otherness' to the world that is called into question. The problem amounts to mistaking the experiences of the mind as something other than the mind. The denial of 'otherness' or separation is a basic tenet of the non-dualistic (advaita) tradition and here the author of the GK is establishing advaita through a critique of corre-
spondence theories of perception.
Besides IV. 33 is discussing dharmas not bhavas, which may be a
different case altogether. In this context, it seems more likely that the argument refers to 'enclosure within' the mind. This makes statements such as IV. 36 --
"all things perceived by the mind (citta) are insubstantial", appear more appropriate. On this understanding of the verses, it is our error in attributing 'otherness' to the world that is called into question. The problem amounts to mistaking the experiences of the mind as something other than the mind. The denial of 'otherness' or separation is a basic tenet of the non-dualistic (advaita) tradition and here the author of the GK is establishing advaita through a critique of corre-
spondence theories of perception.
II.4. The Status of the Waking and Dream Worlds in Classical 'Advaita
Vedanta'
In his Brahmasutra-Bhasya ~Sankara clearly differentiates dreaming and waking experience in that dreams are false and illusory whereas waking experience is veridical, having an external cause
Vedanta'
In his Brahmasutra-Bhasya ~Sankara clearly differentiates dreaming and waking experience in that dreams are false and illusory whereas waking experience is veridical, having an external cause
The author of the Gaudapada Karika, however, as is widely known, does not
accept the distinction between waking and dream experience. The equality of the two states of consciousness is argued for in the fourth prakarana in terms of a theory of perception which has clear antecedents in the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism. According to the GK, consciousness never actually comes into contact with an external object. Neither waking nor dream experience 'touches' an external world.
This in itself does not necessarily prevent a conventional (samvrti satya) distinction between waking and dreaming experience being drawn (a point emphasized by ~Sankara). It may still be the case that there is an independent and external world which corresponds in some way to our waking experience of it, while in the case of dream experiences there is no such external correspondence. The point of the arguments in the second and fourth prakaran, as is that such a distinction has no independent means of corroboration. It cannot therefore be an ultimate truth (paramartha-satya). This is the point stressed in GK 1V. 25 (quoted above). From a logical (or perhaps common-sense') point of view (yukti-darsana), it would be a mistake to say that a designation (prajnapti) has no objective referent. Nevertheless, such referents themselves have no objective means of verifi-
cation.
accept the distinction between waking and dream experience. The equality of the two states of consciousness is argued for in the fourth prakarana in terms of a theory of perception which has clear antecedents in the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism. According to the GK, consciousness never actually comes into contact with an external object. Neither waking nor dream experience 'touches' an external world.
This in itself does not necessarily prevent a conventional (samvrti satya) distinction between waking and dreaming experience being drawn (a point emphasized by ~Sankara). It may still be the case that there is an independent and external world which corresponds in some way to our waking experience of it, while in the case of dream experiences there is no such external correspondence. The point of the arguments in the second and fourth prakaran, as is that such a distinction has no independent means of corroboration. It cannot therefore be an ultimate truth (paramartha-satya). This is the point stressed in GK 1V. 25 (quoted above). From a logical (or perhaps common-sense') point of view (yukti-darsana), it would be a mistake to say that a designation (prajnapti) has no objective referent. Nevertheless, such referents themselves have no objective means of verifi-
cation.
The only manner in which one could validate the postulated correspondence between experience and object would be to 'step outside' the confines of that experience. The GK's point is that every
time this is done we find ourselves confronted with a conflicting set of data, that is, we find ourselves in the states of sleep, dream or samadhi, none of which substantiates waking experience. For the GK
then, all experience is 'state-bound'; the only way in which the veridicality of an experience can be validated is to be literally 'out of one's mind'. This is the metanoia (amanasta) of the enlightened being and is to be achieved through the practice of yoga. It is only then that Brahman, the ultimate reality, can be directly perceived.
The arguments that are put forward in the GK establish the reasons why we take dream experiences to be false (when we are awake).
Those reasons are not based upon the fact that our experiences correspond to a world of real, external objects, but upon the coherence of each experience in relation to our general set of experiences (and the presuppositions and prejudicial views that go along with them). This is a 'coherence' rather than a 'correspondence' theory of perception. The idea that the mind could ever come into contact with an external and independent reality is a fallacious one.
In this case, we can agree with Stephen Kaplan's 'phenomenological interpretation' of these karikas. The basic thrust of the equation of waking and dream experiences is the realization that these two types of experience are equal in the sense that what we perceive is the appearance (abhasa) of an object and not the object itself. This is not so much a denial of an independent world of objects but rather a denial that such a world could have any bearing upon experience, which is wholly an activity of consciousness.
It may well be the case that the description of the philosophy of the Gaudapadiya-karika as 'idealistic' is as misleading as it is for the works of the early Yogacarins Asanga and Vasubandhu. This is a
problem that has found its way to the forefront of Western approaches to Indian philosophy and I suggest that the question can never be adequately resolved until we are more precise about the
meaning of the term 'idealism'. Many of the philosophical systems which developed in India were closely linked to a religious tradition and consequently cannot be understood purely in terms of the western
term 'philo-sophia' -- the love of wisdom for its own sake. In Vedanta and Buddhism wisdom procures liberation for the individual. The soteriological intent of much of Indian philosophy is a point that has been stressed in the past to the point of banality. Nevertheless it is a fact that should not be overlooked. In understanding Indian systems of thought from a Western perspective, it is important to acknowledge the background of many doctrines and theories in actual religious practice. In the case of the Yogacara school, for instance, Schmithausen has demonstrated the way in which the school's distinctive philosophical position is established as a result of reflection upon the
nature of the meditative experience (samadhi) and its consequences for so-called 'normative' states of mind. Both the Yogacara and Vedanta systems place a great deal of mportance on the attainment of some form of non-discursive (nirvikalpa) 'enlightenment' experience, sometimes referred to as yogi-
pratyaksa the direct-perception of reality by the yogin. Such an experience is claimed to be of a radically different order when compared to the experiences of most human beings. Indeed, the distinction between the enlightenment-experience of insight (prajna) and the everyday experiences of unenlightened individuals is vitally important to the social structure of the religious community in India.
time this is done we find ourselves confronted with a conflicting set of data, that is, we find ourselves in the states of sleep, dream or samadhi, none of which substantiates waking experience. For the GK
then, all experience is 'state-bound'; the only way in which the veridicality of an experience can be validated is to be literally 'out of one's mind'. This is the metanoia (amanasta) of the enlightened being and is to be achieved through the practice of yoga. It is only then that Brahman, the ultimate reality, can be directly perceived.
The arguments that are put forward in the GK establish the reasons why we take dream experiences to be false (when we are awake).
Those reasons are not based upon the fact that our experiences correspond to a world of real, external objects, but upon the coherence of each experience in relation to our general set of experiences (and the presuppositions and prejudicial views that go along with them). This is a 'coherence' rather than a 'correspondence' theory of perception. The idea that the mind could ever come into contact with an external and independent reality is a fallacious one.
In this case, we can agree with Stephen Kaplan's 'phenomenological interpretation' of these karikas. The basic thrust of the equation of waking and dream experiences is the realization that these two types of experience are equal in the sense that what we perceive is the appearance (abhasa) of an object and not the object itself. This is not so much a denial of an independent world of objects but rather a denial that such a world could have any bearing upon experience, which is wholly an activity of consciousness.
It may well be the case that the description of the philosophy of the Gaudapadiya-karika as 'idealistic' is as misleading as it is for the works of the early Yogacarins Asanga and Vasubandhu. This is a
problem that has found its way to the forefront of Western approaches to Indian philosophy and I suggest that the question can never be adequately resolved until we are more precise about the
meaning of the term 'idealism'. Many of the philosophical systems which developed in India were closely linked to a religious tradition and consequently cannot be understood purely in terms of the western
term 'philo-sophia' -- the love of wisdom for its own sake. In Vedanta and Buddhism wisdom procures liberation for the individual. The soteriological intent of much of Indian philosophy is a point that has been stressed in the past to the point of banality. Nevertheless it is a fact that should not be overlooked. In understanding Indian systems of thought from a Western perspective, it is important to acknowledge the background of many doctrines and theories in actual religious practice. In the case of the Yogacara school, for instance, Schmithausen has demonstrated the way in which the school's distinctive philosophical position is established as a result of reflection upon the
nature of the meditative experience (samadhi) and its consequences for so-called 'normative' states of mind. Both the Yogacara and Vedanta systems place a great deal of mportance on the attainment of some form of non-discursive (nirvikalpa) 'enlightenment' experience, sometimes referred to as yogi-
pratyaksa the direct-perception of reality by the yogin. Such an experience is claimed to be of a radically different order when compared to the experiences of most human beings. Indeed, the distinction between the enlightenment-experience of insight (prajna) and the everyday experiences of unenlightened individuals is vitally important to the social structure of the religious community in India.
Sociologically, the difference between levels of attainment and knowledge clearly demarcates
the religious specialist i.e. the bhiksu or the sanyasi, from the lay community at large. For the religious layperson such a distinction provides an ideal or an archetype to be lived up to and respected in thers while for the religious specialist it functions as a religious 'status symbol', providing a clearly defined and hierarchical path of meditative attainment.
The distinction between 'mundane' and 'supramundane' levels of knowledge is found throughtout Indian religious thought and Buddhism and Veddnta are no exceptions. The distinction is often
expressed in terms of the axiological polarity between defiled and pure states of mind, or sometimes between mundane consciousness (vijnana: episteme) and supramundane insight (jnana: gnosis). It is
in the context of this distinction that the question of the appropriateness of the Western term 'idealism' is to be considered in relation to these philosophical systems.
The GK has an idealistic epistemology, that is it propounds a theory of (mundane) knowledge (pramana) in which the objects of experience are said to be 'constructed' in some manner by the dispersive mind (vijnnaa). The world of our experience is nothing more han a series of images (abhasa) caused by the fluctuations of consciousness (vijnana-spandita). This is where the idea of an independent and external world of objects comes from. Clearly then in our everyday experience of waking, dreaming and sleeping we are living a lie; we are ignorant in that we fail to realize that the objective world which confronts us is made up of images caused by our own disturbed
state of mind.
This all sounds remarkably like straightforward idealism. Nevertheless, the GK maintains that there is a fourth state of awareness (turiya). In this supramundane state of knowledge the ignorance
(avidya) and constructed ideality (vikalpita) of the so called 'normative' states of experience are completely absent. In turiya or samadhi the yogin has a direct perception (pratyaks.a) of 'things as
they are' (yathabhuta). This gnosis (jnana) is a direct apprehension of Brahman, the supreme reality. The distinction between epistemological idealism (viz. the theory that 'normative' experience is a product of a vibrating consciousness or vijnana) and a 'gnoseological' realism
(viz. the theory that a substantive and mind-independent reality is directly perceived in supramundane gnosis or jnana) is crucial to a correct appraisal of the sophistication of Gaudapadian thought.
The unqualified description of the philosophy of the GK as idealistic is inappropriate since the text clearly posits a substantial reality
(Brahman) wholly independent of the mind and its constructions.
Nevertheless the text also suggests that the world as we know it in everyday mundane and unenlightened experience is largely an idealistic construction. The world as experienced by the religious specialist (the enlightened individual), however, is not one of ideality (vikalpita).
It is in fact a direct perception of 'reality as it is' (yathdbhuta). So from the GK's point of view all unenlightened individuals are idealists,
in practice if not in theory, in that they experience a realm of ideality constructed by their own minds. In contrast to this all enlightened individuals experience reality not ideality.
As we have seen, the Gaudapada Karika denies that the world is an idealistic creation of the individual. Nevertheless, all that the unenlightened mind comes into contact with in the so-called 'normative' states of consciousness (viz. the waking, dream and deep sleep
states) are the activities (spandita) of the mind itself. This is the adoption of the Yogacara notion of Vijnapti Matrata by the Gaudapadiya-Karika, a point perhaps noted by the commentator, who
describes Gau.dapada's position as 'jnapti-matra'. For the commentator these arguments are adopted from the 'Vijnanavaddins' to combat realism and as such they seem to have been understood to be of a provisional nature. From the text of the GK, however, there is
no evidence to suggest that this is not the author's own definitive position ( siddhanta ).
the religious specialist i.e. the bhiksu or the sanyasi, from the lay community at large. For the religious layperson such a distinction provides an ideal or an archetype to be lived up to and respected in thers while for the religious specialist it functions as a religious 'status symbol', providing a clearly defined and hierarchical path of meditative attainment.
The distinction between 'mundane' and 'supramundane' levels of knowledge is found throughtout Indian religious thought and Buddhism and Veddnta are no exceptions. The distinction is often
expressed in terms of the axiological polarity between defiled and pure states of mind, or sometimes between mundane consciousness (vijnana: episteme) and supramundane insight (jnana: gnosis). It is
in the context of this distinction that the question of the appropriateness of the Western term 'idealism' is to be considered in relation to these philosophical systems.
The GK has an idealistic epistemology, that is it propounds a theory of (mundane) knowledge (pramana) in which the objects of experience are said to be 'constructed' in some manner by the dispersive mind (vijnnaa). The world of our experience is nothing more han a series of images (abhasa) caused by the fluctuations of consciousness (vijnana-spandita). This is where the idea of an independent and external world of objects comes from. Clearly then in our everyday experience of waking, dreaming and sleeping we are living a lie; we are ignorant in that we fail to realize that the objective world which confronts us is made up of images caused by our own disturbed
state of mind.
This all sounds remarkably like straightforward idealism. Nevertheless, the GK maintains that there is a fourth state of awareness (turiya). In this supramundane state of knowledge the ignorance
(avidya) and constructed ideality (vikalpita) of the so called 'normative' states of experience are completely absent. In turiya or samadhi the yogin has a direct perception (pratyaks.a) of 'things as
they are' (yathabhuta). This gnosis (jnana) is a direct apprehension of Brahman, the supreme reality. The distinction between epistemological idealism (viz. the theory that 'normative' experience is a product of a vibrating consciousness or vijnana) and a 'gnoseological' realism
(viz. the theory that a substantive and mind-independent reality is directly perceived in supramundane gnosis or jnana) is crucial to a correct appraisal of the sophistication of Gaudapadian thought.
The unqualified description of the philosophy of the GK as idealistic is inappropriate since the text clearly posits a substantial reality
(Brahman) wholly independent of the mind and its constructions.
Nevertheless the text also suggests that the world as we know it in everyday mundane and unenlightened experience is largely an idealistic construction. The world as experienced by the religious specialist (the enlightened individual), however, is not one of ideality (vikalpita).
It is in fact a direct perception of 'reality as it is' (yathdbhuta). So from the GK's point of view all unenlightened individuals are idealists,
in practice if not in theory, in that they experience a realm of ideality constructed by their own minds. In contrast to this all enlightened individuals experience reality not ideality.
As we have seen, the Gaudapada Karika denies that the world is an idealistic creation of the individual. Nevertheless, all that the unenlightened mind comes into contact with in the so-called 'normative' states of consciousness (viz. the waking, dream and deep sleep
states) are the activities (spandita) of the mind itself. This is the adoption of the Yogacara notion of Vijnapti Matrata by the Gaudapadiya-Karika, a point perhaps noted by the commentator, who
describes Gau.dapada's position as 'jnapti-matra'. For the commentator these arguments are adopted from the 'Vijnanavaddins' to combat realism and as such they seem to have been understood to be of a provisional nature. From the text of the GK, however, there is
no evidence to suggest that this is not the author's own definitive position ( siddhanta ).
III. ASPARSAYOGA: THE GAUDAPADIAN THEORY OF PERCEPTION
Perception is based upon the possibility of 'contact' (sparsa) between a perceiver and a perceived object. An attack upon this notion then is fundamental to an attack upon all 'realist' theories of perception. The Nyaya-sutra, for instance, defines perception (pratyaksa) as "the
determinate, unnamed and unerring knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense organ with its object. ''This is an inherently dualistic understanding of experience and as such is clearly unacceptable to the non-dualistic author of the Gaudapada Karika. An attack upon the notion of 'contact' is fundamental to a thorough-going non- dual theory of perception. In fact it is the GK's position that:
Consciousness does not make contact with an object, nor even the appearance of an
object. In fact, the object is unreal, and the appearance of the object is not different.
The idea implicit in the Gaudapadiananalysis of perception is that in order to be aware or to experience something, one has to have that thing before the mind. If experience requires contact between the mind and its object -- then that object cannot be separate from the
mind in the sense that we believe that it is. As such 'asparsa' is a corollary of the theory of the non-duality of consciousness (advayavada), there being no possibility of contact in a non-dualistic
(advaya) realm. As we shall see, the doctrine of the non-duality of consciousness (vijnana-advaya) is endorsed by the Gaudapadiya Karika in agreement with the Yogacarins.
Thus, upon analysis, 'sparsa' must really be 'contact' between two things already intimately connected. In effect 'sparsa becomes 'asparsa' for it is the realization that one can only come into contact with that with which one is already in contact.
Perceived by the mind of the waking one, [ these things ] do not exist apart from it.
Similarly, the perceived thing is said to be merely the mind in the waking state. ~
Reality is non-dual (advaita), untouched (asparsa) and non-relational (asahga). This is the realization of aspariayoga, the goal of the GK's soteriological system. It is a state of non-contact, following on from the dissolution of all mental activity (amanasta). Thus, "when the mind has become no-mind, duality is not experienced".
In this enlightened state "there is no perception in the absence of a perceptible object. ''
Thus,
When the mind is not latent and is also not distracted, it is motionless and does not
arise. Then it becomes Brahman.
A proper analysis of the nature of perception reveals the fact that the mind never actually touches an object. The division of our experience into a 'subject' and an 'object' is nothing more than a
vibration of consciousness. This consciousness is said to be permanently unrelated to an object. In reality, all is Brahman. Thus, the GK's final position on things is that there is:
Neither cessation nor origination, neither one bound, nor one practising spiritual discipline, neither one aspiring for liberation nor one who is liberated. This is the ultimate truth
Thus,
When the mind is not latent and is also not distracted, it is motionless and does not
arise. Then it becomes Brahman.
A proper analysis of the nature of perception reveals the fact that the mind never actually touches an object. The division of our experience into a 'subject' and an 'object' is nothing more than a
vibration of consciousness. This consciousness is said to be permanently unrelated to an object. In reality, all is Brahman. Thus, the GK's final position on things is that there is:
Neither cessation nor origination, neither one bound, nor one practising spiritual discipline, neither one aspiring for liberation nor one who is liberated. This is the ultimate truth
III.1. 'Aspargayoga' and Buddhism
Since the author of the Gaudapada Karika shows such a propensity for Buddhist ideas, it would be useful to examine the notion of 'asparsa' within the context of Buddhist thought in general. As is well known, the Buddhist analyses the psycho-physical components of the individual into five groups : the five skandhas (viz. rupa, vedana, samjna, samskara, vijnana). Sensation ( vedana) is impossible without contact between the two polar aspects of the rupa-skandha (viz, the
five sense organs (indriyas) and the five sense objects (visayas).
Samjna requires not only contact between the sense organ and its object, but also the intervention of a reflective consciousness, a mind, in order to Occur. Vasubandhu notes in his Abhidharma-kosa that 'sparsa' is
Since the author of the Gaudapada Karika shows such a propensity for Buddhist ideas, it would be useful to examine the notion of 'asparsa' within the context of Buddhist thought in general. As is well known, the Buddhist analyses the psycho-physical components of the individual into five groups : the five skandhas (viz. rupa, vedana, samjna, samskara, vijnana). Sensation ( vedana) is impossible without contact between the two polar aspects of the rupa-skandha (viz, the
five sense organs (indriyas) and the five sense objects (visayas).
Samjna requires not only contact between the sense organ and its object, but also the intervention of a reflective consciousness, a mind, in order to Occur. Vasubandhu notes in his Abhidharma-kosa that 'sparsa' is
the encounter of the triad of consciousness (vijnana), sense-organ (prasadendriya) and material object (visayalambana); by virtue of this contact there is sensation (vedana)
and perception (samjna).
and perception (samjna).
Without this threefold contact, the whole system would fall apart, and there would be no possibility of the continuance of the five skandhas.
Buddhaghosa says in his Atthasalini that:
This contact is like a pillar in a palace being the firm support to the rest of the
structure; and just as beams, cross-beams, wing-supports, roof-rafters, cross-rafters
and neck-pieces are fastened to the pillar, so also is contact a firm support to the
simultaneous and associated events. It is like the pillar, the rest of the psychic events
are like the other materials forming the structure.
In the Buddhist scheme of dependent-origination (pratitya- samutpada), the twelve-fold chain of dependent origination, sparsa is the sixth link in the chain. It is interesting to note that the scheme can be divided into three parts:
(1) to (2) = past existences,
(3) to (10) -- the present existence and
(11) to (12) = future existences.
Sparsa is said by some to denote the moment of birth in the present life. It is the moment when we first come into contact with an external world. Taking this at face value, we can then see how the notion of asparsa links up with the central doctrine of the
Gaudapada Karika, viz. the doctrine of non-origination (ajativada), since this is precisely what asparga amounts to when related to the Buddhist conception of dependent-origination.
Thus one could say, by implication, that for the Buddhist the realization of a state of non-contact (asparsa) amounts to the cessation of the perpetual chain of samsaric experiences. In this sense asparga denotes liberation itself. Although the term is rarely if ever used in this context, a state of non-contact is the fundamental prerequisite for the attainment of the cessation of sensation and perception (samjna- vedayita-nirodha), or nirodhasamdpatti, the ninth and supreme level of
Buddhist meditative attainment. However, as we have seen, in the meditative context asparsa can be said to denote little more than the successful application of pratyahara, a technique adopted by Buddhist and non-Buddhist yogins alike.
Buddhaghosa says in his Atthasalini that:
This contact is like a pillar in a palace being the firm support to the rest of the
structure; and just as beams, cross-beams, wing-supports, roof-rafters, cross-rafters
and neck-pieces are fastened to the pillar, so also is contact a firm support to the
simultaneous and associated events. It is like the pillar, the rest of the psychic events
are like the other materials forming the structure.
In the Buddhist scheme of dependent-origination (pratitya- samutpada), the twelve-fold chain of dependent origination, sparsa is the sixth link in the chain. It is interesting to note that the scheme can be divided into three parts:
(1) to (2) = past existences,
(3) to (10) -- the present existence and
(11) to (12) = future existences.
Sparsa is said by some to denote the moment of birth in the present life. It is the moment when we first come into contact with an external world. Taking this at face value, we can then see how the notion of asparsa links up with the central doctrine of the
Gaudapada Karika, viz. the doctrine of non-origination (ajativada), since this is precisely what asparga amounts to when related to the Buddhist conception of dependent-origination.
Thus one could say, by implication, that for the Buddhist the realization of a state of non-contact (asparsa) amounts to the cessation of the perpetual chain of samsaric experiences. In this sense asparga denotes liberation itself. Although the term is rarely if ever used in this context, a state of non-contact is the fundamental prerequisite for the attainment of the cessation of sensation and perception (samjna- vedayita-nirodha), or nirodhasamdpatti, the ninth and supreme level of
Buddhist meditative attainment. However, as we have seen, in the meditative context asparsa can be said to denote little more than the successful application of pratyahara, a technique adopted by Buddhist and non-Buddhist yogins alike.
III.2. The Background of Non-contact ('asparsa') in the 'Yogacara' School
Asparsayoga, as a critique of correspondence theories of perception, appears to be the Gaudapad a-Karika's own 'Vedantic' version of the fundamental insight of the Yogacara tradition 'the realization of Vijnapti-matrata' or 'Representation-only'. This is the idea that what we perceive as objects is in actual fact only the representation of objects in the mind. Thus, the Madhyanta-vibhaga I. 7 states that:-
Depending upon perception, there arises non-perception, and depending upon
non-perception, there arises non-perception.
Asparsayoga, as a critique of correspondence theories of perception, appears to be the Gaudapad a-Karika's own 'Vedantic' version of the fundamental insight of the Yogacara tradition 'the realization of Vijnapti-matrata' or 'Representation-only'. This is the idea that what we perceive as objects is in actual fact only the representation of objects in the mind. Thus, the Madhyanta-vibhaga I. 7 states that:-
Depending upon perception, there arises non-perception, and depending upon
non-perception, there arises non-perception.
Vasubandhu explains this rather obscure verse in the following manner:
Depending upon the perception that there are only Representations, there arises the non-perception of objects. Depending upon the non-perception of objects, there arises the non-perception of mere-representations (vijnapti-matra) as well. Thus, one understands the definition of the non-existence of the perceived and the perceiver, This idea is repeated in Vasubandhu's Trisvabhavanirdesa:
Through the perception that there is only thought (citta-matra), there arises the non- perception of knowable things, through the non-perception of knowable things, there arises the non-perception of thought as well.
Depending upon the perception that there are only Representations, there arises the non-perception of objects. Depending upon the non-perception of objects, there arises the non-perception of mere-representations (vijnapti-matra) as well. Thus, one understands the definition of the non-existence of the perceived and the perceiver, This idea is repeated in Vasubandhu's Trisvabhavanirdesa:
Through the perception that there is only thought (citta-matra), there arises the non- perception of knowable things, through the non-perception of knowable things, there arises the non-perception of thought as well.
The insight into the fact that we only experience representations of objects, and not the objects themselves, leads to the realization that the presence of an external object is not a prerequisite for its percep- tion by us. This is evident from the fact that every night in a dream we have a whole host of experiences and representations of objects without any corresponding objects 'out there'. On this point Vasubandhu notes elsewhere that: Perception can occur as in a dream etc. At the time when that occurs an object is not seen. How then, can one speak of its perception? The argument from dream experience is one of the characteristic features of Yogdcara thought. What we perceive in actual fact, according to the Yogacarins is nothing more than the mind itself
(cittamatra). In the third and fourth prakaranas, the Gaudapadiya Karika further analyses the nature of dream and waking experiences hat were declared to be one (eka) and false (vitatha) in the second prakarana. Thus,
As through maya the mind in dream vibrates with the image of two, so through maya,
the mind in the waking state vibrates with the image of two.
The author of the Gaudapada Karika grounds his epistemology in the notion of advaya (literally, 'not two'). The term 'advaya', although not a uniquely Buddhist term, has a clear technical background in the Mahayana schools. In general, there appear to be two senses in which it is used. Firstly it is used as a designation of the Buddha's Middle Path. In this context it refers to the fact that the Buddhist Path is an avoidance of the two poles of extreme views. While this usage is not
ignored by the author of the GK, 'advaya' is predominantly used in the form that became particularly associated with the Yogacara school,
that is 'not two' in the sense of the 'non-duality of consciousness'.
The duality rejected in this context is the duality of perceived and perceiver (grahya-grahaka) apparent in everyday perception. Our fundamental error is that we take this dichotomy to be a characteristic
of 'things as they are' (yathabhuta) and not of 'things as they appear' (yathabhasa). The use of specific terms from the Yogacara school in the exposition of advayavada makes Buddhist influence upon the karika beyond doubt.
The world appears as it does because of our attachment to the unreal (abhutabhinivesa). For the GK the realization that the subject-object distinction does not hold is the realization that reality is
essentially non-dual. Only Brahman is. Our mistake is in allowing the mind to bifurcate into perceiver and perceived in the first place. The dissolution of the mind is the attainment of Brahman and the
quiescence of all constructed ideality (vikalpa).
This duality, comprising the moveable and the immoveable, is perceived by the mind;
when the mind has become non-mind, duality is not experienced.
When by knowlege of the truth about atman, [the mind] ceases to imagine, it is in
the state of mindlessness; there is no grasping in the absence of a graspable.
Nevertheless, it is important to keep in the mind the fact that for the author of the GK one can only attain that which already is.
Liberation and bondage are convenient fictions. To this extent it becomes difficult to uphold any methodology whatsoever, given that there is actually nothing to do. This refers us back to an earlier
observation, that the term asparsayoga is a paradoxical one. This points to the dialectical tension found throughout the GK's rich, integrative and innovative thought.
In the fourth prakaran, a rather poetically entitled the 'Peace of the Firebrand' (alatasanti), we find a detailed exposition of advaya- vada. There are no occurences of the terms 'dvaita' or 'advaita' in this
prakaran, but this in itself is not necessarily evidence of separate authorship. We are in danger of misrepresenting the fourth prakarana if we do not see the purpose behind its composition.
Although it contains many explicit and implicit metaphysical statements about the nature of reality, I suggest that its primary focus is an analysis of mind and the nature of experience. This is not to say that the author of the fourth prakarana is not adhering to a non-dualistic ontology when he writes the alatasanti. Considerable time has already been spent establishing the idea of non-origination (ajativada) in the metaphysical sphere with the denial of all creation theories and doctrines of causation. But it is also important to ground this same insight in the epistemological realm. It is here that we find the development of the GK's own version of consciousness-only, in the idea of the untouched (asparsa) and non-dual (advaya) nature of consciousess. The theory outlined and emphasized in the fourth prakarana, whilst having ontological implications (in terms of the doctrine of advaita), is established primarily as a phenomenology of consciousness i.e. as an explanation of the phenomenon of conscious experience. It is on the basis of this analysis of the phenomenon of consciousness that
the GK expounds its idealistic epistemology.
(cittamatra). In the third and fourth prakaranas, the Gaudapadiya Karika further analyses the nature of dream and waking experiences hat were declared to be one (eka) and false (vitatha) in the second prakarana. Thus,
As through maya the mind in dream vibrates with the image of two, so through maya,
the mind in the waking state vibrates with the image of two.
The author of the Gaudapada Karika grounds his epistemology in the notion of advaya (literally, 'not two'). The term 'advaya', although not a uniquely Buddhist term, has a clear technical background in the Mahayana schools. In general, there appear to be two senses in which it is used. Firstly it is used as a designation of the Buddha's Middle Path. In this context it refers to the fact that the Buddhist Path is an avoidance of the two poles of extreme views. While this usage is not
ignored by the author of the GK, 'advaya' is predominantly used in the form that became particularly associated with the Yogacara school,
that is 'not two' in the sense of the 'non-duality of consciousness'.
The duality rejected in this context is the duality of perceived and perceiver (grahya-grahaka) apparent in everyday perception. Our fundamental error is that we take this dichotomy to be a characteristic
of 'things as they are' (yathabhuta) and not of 'things as they appear' (yathabhasa). The use of specific terms from the Yogacara school in the exposition of advayavada makes Buddhist influence upon the karika beyond doubt.
The world appears as it does because of our attachment to the unreal (abhutabhinivesa). For the GK the realization that the subject-object distinction does not hold is the realization that reality is
essentially non-dual. Only Brahman is. Our mistake is in allowing the mind to bifurcate into perceiver and perceived in the first place. The dissolution of the mind is the attainment of Brahman and the
quiescence of all constructed ideality (vikalpa).
This duality, comprising the moveable and the immoveable, is perceived by the mind;
when the mind has become non-mind, duality is not experienced.
When by knowlege of the truth about atman, [the mind] ceases to imagine, it is in
the state of mindlessness; there is no grasping in the absence of a graspable.
Nevertheless, it is important to keep in the mind the fact that for the author of the GK one can only attain that which already is.
Liberation and bondage are convenient fictions. To this extent it becomes difficult to uphold any methodology whatsoever, given that there is actually nothing to do. This refers us back to an earlier
observation, that the term asparsayoga is a paradoxical one. This points to the dialectical tension found throughout the GK's rich, integrative and innovative thought.
In the fourth prakaran, a rather poetically entitled the 'Peace of the Firebrand' (alatasanti), we find a detailed exposition of advaya- vada. There are no occurences of the terms 'dvaita' or 'advaita' in this
prakaran, but this in itself is not necessarily evidence of separate authorship. We are in danger of misrepresenting the fourth prakarana if we do not see the purpose behind its composition.
Although it contains many explicit and implicit metaphysical statements about the nature of reality, I suggest that its primary focus is an analysis of mind and the nature of experience. This is not to say that the author of the fourth prakarana is not adhering to a non-dualistic ontology when he writes the alatasanti. Considerable time has already been spent establishing the idea of non-origination (ajativada) in the metaphysical sphere with the denial of all creation theories and doctrines of causation. But it is also important to ground this same insight in the epistemological realm. It is here that we find the development of the GK's own version of consciousness-only, in the idea of the untouched (asparsa) and non-dual (advaya) nature of consciousess. The theory outlined and emphasized in the fourth prakarana, whilst having ontological implications (in terms of the doctrine of advaita), is established primarily as a phenomenology of consciousness i.e. as an explanation of the phenomenon of conscious experience. It is on the basis of this analysis of the phenomenon of consciousness that
the GK expounds its idealistic epistemology.
III.3. 'Maya' in the 'Gaudapada Karika
This brings us to another important notion in the Gaudapada-Karika-- that of maya. The author of the GK does not develop the notion of maya to any great extent. This is probably because he had little interest in the idea, the primary focus of the GK being the truth of non-origination. Equally, the reason the notion of maya shows little in the way of systematic development may reflect that fact that for the author of the GK maya is, in the final analysis, incomprehensible . This could be seen as a possible precursor of the classical Advaita VedAnta doctrine of the indeterminability of maya. However, one should beware of reading back views into the karikas for there is no consistently developed doctrine of maya in the GK Debate about the nature of maya was left to the GK's successors.
Nevertheless, one can discern certain key points in the GK's conception of maya. Traces of Vedic influence can be found in certain references to maya as some sort of 'divine power' of atman. Notable is a quotation referring to the birth of Indra through maya. Yet, in the Gaudapada maintains that the world does not exist because it is "merely maya" Again in III. 27 maya is
placed in opposition to tattva, reality.
The birth of an existent is, in fact, only reasonable through maya, and not in
reality, ]Him] for whom [the existent] is born in reality, the [already] born would be
born.
This brings us to another important notion in the Gaudapada-Karika-- that of maya. The author of the GK does not develop the notion of maya to any great extent. This is probably because he had little interest in the idea, the primary focus of the GK being the truth of non-origination. Equally, the reason the notion of maya shows little in the way of systematic development may reflect that fact that for the author of the GK maya is, in the final analysis, incomprehensible . This could be seen as a possible precursor of the classical Advaita VedAnta doctrine of the indeterminability of maya. However, one should beware of reading back views into the karikas for there is no consistently developed doctrine of maya in the GK Debate about the nature of maya was left to the GK's successors.
Nevertheless, one can discern certain key points in the GK's conception of maya. Traces of Vedic influence can be found in certain references to maya as some sort of 'divine power' of atman. Notable is a quotation referring to the birth of Indra through maya. Yet, in the Gaudapada maintains that the world does not exist because it is "merely maya" Again in III. 27 maya is
placed in opposition to tattva, reality.
The birth of an existent is, in fact, only reasonable through maya, and not in
reality, ]Him] for whom [the existent] is born in reality, the [already] born would be
born.
The verse following this is illuminating since it denies that a non- existent thing can come into existence, even through maya. Maya then has more provisional status than the 'son of a barren woman', which cannot even be perceived)
The frequent occurence of the term 'maya' in the instrumental case points to its position as the means by which the world appears as it does. It is through maya that the mind vibrates into the duality of a perceiver and a perceived The frequent juxtapositon of maya and 'dream' (svapna) also alludes to the 'dream-like' status of the world. In post-Gaud.apadian Vedanta, maya is increasingly given the status of a specific power (sakti), through which Brahman apparently creates
(vivartate) the manifold world. In the GK, however, we find the term utilized in both a cosmological context as the aman's power of self- delusion and in a psychological context as the delusory capacity of the individual mind to construct a static world picture from the flux of
experience
(vivartate) the manifold world. In the GK, however, we find the term utilized in both a cosmological context as the aman's power of self- delusion and in a psychological context as the delusory capacity of the individual mind to construct a static world picture from the flux of
experience
Just as an illusory elephant is said to exist owing to the perception [ of it ] and
common consent, likewise it is said that an object exists on account of its perception
and common consent
common consent, likewise it is said that an object exists on account of its perception
and common consent
A more comprehensive understanding of the status of maya can be drawn from an analysis of the GK's use of analogies.
The relationship between the world and Brahman is like that between a rope and its false appearance as a snake. Thus,
As a rope not clearly seen in the dark, is falsely imagined to be things like a snake
or a stream etc., so likewise is atman falsely imagined,
Just as the imagined thing (vikalpa) disappears when the rope is clearly seen as a
rope, so is atman clearly seen as the non-dual (advaita). The world of diversity has the status of a false imagination (vikalpa); it s like the snake, a misconception, which nevertheless has its basis in
the rope.
Maya is also comparable to the image (abhasa) caused by a moving firebrand -- it is a false appearance projected upon the screen of reality. Both the firebrand and the rope-snake analogy imply that behind all appearances there is an unchanging and unaffected substratum, just as behind the snake and the image there is a rope or a firebrand. The world is not real, just as the snake and the image are not real, yet what status they do have (as appearances) is dependent
upon the substrative reality underlying them. This is classic Vedantain that the world can only appear because Brahman supports it. Thus we can discern in the Gaudapadiya-Karika's notion of maya, the stirrings of a philosophical position that predominated in the later Sankarite school and that is the idea that the relationship between Brahman and the world is indeterminable (anirvacaniya) and inexpressible in terms of the categories of 'existence' and 'non-existence'.
In the firebrand section of the fourth prakarana, the author argues
that:
When consciousness (vijnana) is vibrating, the images do not derive from
anywhere else. When it is not vibrating, [they] do not reside elsewhere, nor do they
enter consciousness.
[The images] do not go out from consciousness, owing to their insubstantiality.
Because of the absence of a relation between cause and effect, they are ever
incomprehensible ( acintya ))
upon the substrative reality underlying them. This is classic Vedantain that the world can only appear because Brahman supports it. Thus we can discern in the Gaudapadiya-Karika's notion of maya, the stirrings of a philosophical position that predominated in the later Sankarite school and that is the idea that the relationship between Brahman and the world is indeterminable (anirvacaniya) and inexpressible in terms of the categories of 'existence' and 'non-existence'.
In the firebrand section of the fourth prakarana, the author argues
that:
When consciousness (vijnana) is vibrating, the images do not derive from
anywhere else. When it is not vibrating, [they] do not reside elsewhere, nor do they
enter consciousness.
[The images] do not go out from consciousness, owing to their insubstantiality.
Because of the absence of a relation between cause and effect, they are ever
incomprehensible ( acintya ))
111.4. The Firebrand Analogy as Explanation of the Experience of Duality
The world is a dualistic construction caused by the oscillation of consciousness (vijnana/cittaspandita). These vibrations of the mind create the images of a perceiver and a perceived. Anything that the mind appears to come into contact with is in reality only an image
caused by the mind's own tendency to fluctuate. These images are likened to those caused by a moving firebrand.
Just as with a moving firebrand there are straight and crooked images etc., likewise
with vibrating consciousness (vijnana) there are the images of a perceiver and a
perceived? 11
The analogy of a 'wheel of fire' was originally used by Buddhists to explain how a series of discrete 'flashes of light' could appear as a single persisting entity. When a firebrand is moved in a
circular motion there appears to be a wheel of fire hovering in the air. The illusion of permanence is created by the firebrand's swift movement.
In his Abhidharmakosa-bhasya, Vasubandhu (qua Sautrantika) criticizes the Vaibhasika's acceptance of shape (sam. sthana) as a substantial entity (dravya-sat). In order to illustrate his point, the
author refers to the evanescence and insubstantiality of the various shapes caused by the whirling of a firebrand.
Seeing a firebrand [moving] in one direction, from one spot to the immediately adjacent one, quickly and without interruption, one recognizes (or ascertains) 'length', seeing it thusly in all directions, one recognizes 'round'. Shape is [therefore] not substantial ( na dravyasat samsthanam ). 1 ~2
Interestingly the author of the GK uses the analogy to make the opposite point. The single firebrand when moved does indeed create various images. These images depend upon the firebrand for their appearance, yet they are not real. As such, they are neither part of the firebrand itself, nor are they different from it. This use of the analogy is ingenious and it is interesting to compare this to the Buddhist version of the analogy because it shows the differing interests of the
two camps. The Buddhists are primarily interested in explaining how a stream of discrete perceptions can create the illusion of a permanent self. The author of the GK, however, wishes to establish the non-dual substratum of the world appearance. To do this he emphasises the
role of the firebrand as the non-dual reality behind the fluctuating images.
The terms 'citta-spandita' and 'vijnana-spandita', denoting the vibration' or 'oscillation' of consciousness, are of some interest given the importance of the term 'spanda' in the (subsequent?) traditions of
Kashmir Saivism. The term has no obvious antecedents in this context and is perhaps being used by the author of the Gaudapadiya-Karika instead of the more obvious Yogacara term 'Vijnanaparinama' -- the 'transformations of consciousness'. Vasubandhu (qua Yogacarin) is responsible for the establishment of this phrase as a technical term explaining the manifestation of subject-object dichotomies in experience. According to the opening verse of the Trimsika, both the idea of a subjective self (atman) and of an object of perception (dharma) are caused by vijnana-parinama. Thus the term performs the same function as the GK's term 'vijnana-spandita". The advantage of the
latter term is that it explains the manifestation of dualism without necessitating an actual transformation (parinama) thereby conforming o the doctrine of non-origination (ajativada) which is central to the
philosophical perspective of the GK as a whole.
Nevertheless the important point to note about the notion of the vibrations of consciousness is that it is a metaphorical expression. One cannot take the 'vibration' or 'oscillation' motif too seriously since it
provides nothing more than an analogical explanation of the way in which consciousness can appear as two (subject and object). Notice for instance that the term 'spandita' is only introduced after the simile of the firebrand. The idea of consciousness-vibration, therefore, is only valid as an explanation of duality if seen as an analogy based upon our xperience of the images created by a moving firebrand
The world is a dualistic construction caused by the oscillation of consciousness (vijnana/cittaspandita). These vibrations of the mind create the images of a perceiver and a perceived. Anything that the mind appears to come into contact with is in reality only an image
caused by the mind's own tendency to fluctuate. These images are likened to those caused by a moving firebrand.
Just as with a moving firebrand there are straight and crooked images etc., likewise
with vibrating consciousness (vijnana) there are the images of a perceiver and a
perceived? 11
The analogy of a 'wheel of fire' was originally used by Buddhists to explain how a series of discrete 'flashes of light' could appear as a single persisting entity. When a firebrand is moved in a
circular motion there appears to be a wheel of fire hovering in the air. The illusion of permanence is created by the firebrand's swift movement.
In his Abhidharmakosa-bhasya, Vasubandhu (qua Sautrantika) criticizes the Vaibhasika's acceptance of shape (sam. sthana) as a substantial entity (dravya-sat). In order to illustrate his point, the
author refers to the evanescence and insubstantiality of the various shapes caused by the whirling of a firebrand.
Seeing a firebrand [moving] in one direction, from one spot to the immediately adjacent one, quickly and without interruption, one recognizes (or ascertains) 'length', seeing it thusly in all directions, one recognizes 'round'. Shape is [therefore] not substantial ( na dravyasat samsthanam ). 1 ~2
Interestingly the author of the GK uses the analogy to make the opposite point. The single firebrand when moved does indeed create various images. These images depend upon the firebrand for their appearance, yet they are not real. As such, they are neither part of the firebrand itself, nor are they different from it. This use of the analogy is ingenious and it is interesting to compare this to the Buddhist version of the analogy because it shows the differing interests of the
two camps. The Buddhists are primarily interested in explaining how a stream of discrete perceptions can create the illusion of a permanent self. The author of the GK, however, wishes to establish the non-dual substratum of the world appearance. To do this he emphasises the
role of the firebrand as the non-dual reality behind the fluctuating images.
The terms 'citta-spandita' and 'vijnana-spandita', denoting the vibration' or 'oscillation' of consciousness, are of some interest given the importance of the term 'spanda' in the (subsequent?) traditions of
Kashmir Saivism. The term has no obvious antecedents in this context and is perhaps being used by the author of the Gaudapadiya-Karika instead of the more obvious Yogacara term 'Vijnanaparinama' -- the 'transformations of consciousness'. Vasubandhu (qua Yogacarin) is responsible for the establishment of this phrase as a technical term explaining the manifestation of subject-object dichotomies in experience. According to the opening verse of the Trimsika, both the idea of a subjective self (atman) and of an object of perception (dharma) are caused by vijnana-parinama. Thus the term performs the same function as the GK's term 'vijnana-spandita". The advantage of the
latter term is that it explains the manifestation of dualism without necessitating an actual transformation (parinama) thereby conforming o the doctrine of non-origination (ajativada) which is central to the
philosophical perspective of the GK as a whole.
Nevertheless the important point to note about the notion of the vibrations of consciousness is that it is a metaphorical expression. One cannot take the 'vibration' or 'oscillation' motif too seriously since it
provides nothing more than an analogical explanation of the way in which consciousness can appear as two (subject and object). Notice for instance that the term 'spandita' is only introduced after the simile of the firebrand. The idea of consciousness-vibration, therefore, is only valid as an explanation of duality if seen as an analogy based upon our xperience of the images created by a moving firebrand
It is clear that the entire philosophy of the Gaudapada Karika is based upon the conception of an unchanging and non-dual reality. GK II. 12 declares that "Atman deludes itself through its own maya". The inevitable question arises as to how and why the non-dual and omniscient atman could possibly 'delude itself'. The upshot of ajati vada is that all attempts at explaining creation are doomed to failure from the start because they take creation to be a real and not an
apparent transformation. There can be no attributable reason for the creation of the universe. Thus, in the first prakarana the author notes:
Some say that creation is for the sake of enjoyment, others that it is for the sake of
sport. This again, must be the very nature of the divine, [for] what desire is there for
the one who has obtained all wishes? H5
The world can only appear insofar as it conforms to the very nature of
Brahman itself. Maya as such is inexplicable -- it is 'there' in the sense that we experience it but it is not reality, being mere appearance. As such it is directly comparable to the status of dreams as seen from the perspective of waking consciousness.
It has been suggested that the term 'maya' derives from the root ,~ma, 'to measure') ~Maya is the construction of boundaries and distinctions (vikalpa) in that which has none (nirvikalpa); it is a
measuring (rod) of the immeasurable (amatra). Maya cannot be ultimately real because it is sublatable i.e. it is capable of being overturned by a higher form of knowledge. Dream experience contradicts waking experience (and vice versa). More importantly, however, the realization of non-duality contradicts both.
apparent transformation. There can be no attributable reason for the creation of the universe. Thus, in the first prakarana the author notes:
Some say that creation is for the sake of enjoyment, others that it is for the sake of
sport. This again, must be the very nature of the divine, [for] what desire is there for
the one who has obtained all wishes? H5
The world can only appear insofar as it conforms to the very nature of
Brahman itself. Maya as such is inexplicable -- it is 'there' in the sense that we experience it but it is not reality, being mere appearance. As such it is directly comparable to the status of dreams as seen from the perspective of waking consciousness.
It has been suggested that the term 'maya' derives from the root ,~ma, 'to measure') ~Maya is the construction of boundaries and distinctions (vikalpa) in that which has none (nirvikalpa); it is a
measuring (rod) of the immeasurable (amatra). Maya cannot be ultimately real because it is sublatable i.e. it is capable of being overturned by a higher form of knowledge. Dream experience contradicts waking experience (and vice versa). More importantly, however, the realization of non-duality contradicts both.
Diversity appears to be caused by the faulty apprehension of the individual. This is what the Gaudapada -karika is getting at when it says that the world is enclosed within the mind) ° We cling to non- existent entities (abutabhinivesa), and construct a duality based upon these attachments. Through misconception (viparyasa) we experience 'contact' with the 'incomprehensible' (acintya)) Our experience as individuals then is a peculiar construction of our own tendencies and dispositions. Each person's perception of reality is conditioned by the memory of past experiences. Thus, in the second prakarana it is said that:
First [atman] imagines the jiva, and then various known entities, [both] external and
internal, for as with one's knowledge, so is one's memory.
First [atman] imagines the jiva, and then various known entities, [both] external and
internal, for as with one's knowledge, so is one's memory.
Conclusion
There are two meanings of the term Asparsa Yoga. On the philosophical level, the term implies the realization of non-duality, i.e., of Turiya or Brahman. In this sense it could be called the "No-dual Yoga" or the "Yoga of the Non-dual." On the level of religious practice, the term refers to discipline, path, method or process whereby the sadhaka attains this condition of being one with Ultimate Reality.
To deny that asparsayoga is an explicit reference to a set of meditative practices or that it refers to a state of realization is to fly in the face of the evidence. The confutation of goal and method in the GK is not surprising given its radical absolutism. The most plausible explana- tion of the term 'asparsayoga', therefore, is that it refers both to a form of meditative practice (yoga) and to the goal of that practice (samadhi). As such it also presupposes a specific epistemological
theory -- the theory that the mind does not touch an external object.
This explanation, I suggest, most readily accommodates the multivalent nature of the term 'asparsayoga' as it occurs in the Gaudapadiya- Karika.
theory -- the theory that the mind does not touch an external object.
This explanation, I suggest, most readily accommodates the multivalent nature of the term 'asparsayoga' as it occurs in the Gaudapadiya- Karika.
Comments
Post a Comment