WHAT CAN THE LIFESPANS OF ṚṢABHA, BHARATA, ŚREYĀṂSA, AND ARA TELL US ABOUT THE HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT OF MOUNT MERU?
1. Introduction
Willibald Kirfel (1920/1990), in his major study on Indian cosmology, Die Kosmographie der Inder nach den Quellen dargestellt, compares the brahmanical, buddhist, and jaina cosmological systems, and gives an account of Mount Meru's characteristics in all three systems. He concludes that the early brahmanical cosmology forms the basis of the later cosmology found in the epics and purāṇas,1 and that of the buddhist and jaina systems, as well.2 Suzuko Ohira (1994: 22, §69) also adheres to Kirfel's point of view, and claims in her study of the Viyāhapannatti (= Bhagavatīsūtra): “[...] both Jainas and Buddhists built their own cosmographical features after the models of the Hindus.”3
Contrary to Kirfel's hypothesis, this paper will present some provisional ideas that suggest that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture out of which Jainism and Buddhism arose, the culture of Greater Magadha.4 Thus, the introduction of the concept of Mount Meru into brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata5 might, I propose, be the result of a different historical reality than that which Kirfel perceives. That is to say, one that gives rise to a syncretic form of brahmanical cosmology.6 This hypothesis is based on the following observations: 1) The cosmological concept of Mount Meru (hereafter defined as: “the golden mountain at the centre of the earth and the universe, around which the heavenly bodies revolve”) is prominent in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature, but strikingly absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata. 7 2) Its late introduction into brahmanical literature marks the shift from vedic to epic and purāṇic cosmology at a time when brahmanical contacts with Buddhism, Jainism, and their region of origin, Greater Magadha, were possible and presumably established
3) “The number eighty-four and its multiples,” a special group of numbers associated with cosmological phenomena and entities of importance, is prominent in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, but absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata.9 The first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number from this group with cosmological purport is found in Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10)10, which states that Mount Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth. Concerning “the number eighty-four and its multiples,” it should be noted that my hypothesis does not rely upon research into the symbolism of these numbers. For, although these numbers are very prominent, their significance is nowhere explained. Thus, regardless of any symbolic meaning they may have possibly (but not necessarily) had for the various religious traditions in the early historical period, there is evidence for these numbers associated with cosmological phenomena or entities in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, and none for them in brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata. 11 This, I believe, is a sufficient basis upon which to question their historical implications.12 Consider the examples which follow.
2. The Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons
2.1 The lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa and Ara The Pajjosavaṇākappa, a Śvetāmbara canonical text, states that Ṛṣabha's earthly lifespan was 8,400,000 puvva. 14 The Jambuddīvapannatti 15, the sixth upaṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, also attests to 8,400,000 puvva for Ṛṣabha's lifespan (JDP1 2.40; JDP2 2.88)16 and the same number of puvva for Bharata's lifespan (JDP1 3.87.2; JDP2 3.225).17 The Viyāhapannatti, the fifth aṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, states, more generally, that the lifespans of naradevā (cakkavaṭṭtī) last a minimum of seven hundred years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.13); and those of devāhidevā (titthagara), a minimum of seventy-two years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.15)18. The Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, a non-canonical Śvetāmbara universal history also confirms Ṛṣabha's and Bharata's lifespans of 8,400,000 puvva, and mentions Śreyāṃsa's lifespan of 8,400,000 years, and Ara's of 84,000 years.20 2.2 Calculable (Gaṇiya) Time Measures
In the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions, “the number eighty-four and its multiples” are omnipresent in the category of “calculable” (gaṇiya) time measures.21 Their function is to designate calculable time periods of great magnitude within the osappiṇī (“down-moving”) and ussappiṇī (“up-moving”) two half-motions of jaina cosmic time.22 Hence, the use of these numbers to designate the extraordinarily long earthly lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, and Ara.23
Textual paradigms for the Śvetāmbara gaṇiya time measures are found in the Viyāhapannatti (Viy3 6.7.114) and Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 2.24; JDP2 2.4.4); and those of the Digambara gaṇiya time measures in the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.282 ff.), Trilokasāra and Trilokadīpikā.24 The Viyāhapannatti and Jambuddīvapannatti cite the gaṇiya time measures from the smallest unit of time (one samaya) up to the largest “calculable” unit (one sīsapahelika). From the time unit of eighty-four vāsasayasahassa upwards, “the number eighty-four and its multiples” are omnipresent in this system of time measures.
2.3 The Number 84,000 and the Height of Mount Meru
The Digambara Tiloyapannatti25 states that there are five Merus (here also called Mandara) in all. One in the centre of Jambūdīva (Jambūdvīpa): 99,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it;26 two on the island-continent of Dhādaīsaṇḍa (Dhātakīkhaṇḍa): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it, respectively;27 and two are on the half island-continent of Pokkhara (Puṣkarārdha): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1000 yojanas below it, respectively.28 The Trilokasāra29 provides the same information as the Tiloyapannatti
In the Pāli canon, the Aṅguttara Nikāya states that Sineru (Meru) is 84,000 yojanas high and wide, and that it descends 84,000 yojanas beneath the sea.31 There are other significant occurrences of the number 84,000 in buddhist literature. For example, there are the 84,000 dharmaskandhas of the Buddha32 - i.e., portions of the teaching relating to laws (dharmaskandhavaśena caturaśītisahasravidham)33 - and the 84,000 stūpas containing the relics of Śākyamuni34 which were distributed by Aśoka out of the original eight portions. In the Bhīṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10),35 as well as in the purāṇas,36 it is stated that Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth and descends 16,000 yojanas below it. The height of Mount Meru in the Mahābhārata is the first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number with cosmological significance from the group of “the number eightyfour and its multiples.”
The Concept of Mount Meru in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons
The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 4.132)43 describes Mount Meru (here called Mandara44) as being situated in the very middle of Jambuddīva, the innermost circular continent at the centre of the earth and the universe; and (JDP1 7.159 ff.) 45 as the mountain around which the suns, moons, constellations, and planets revolve. The Sūrapannatti (Sūrap 19.22.10-11;
19.23)46 and the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.435)47 also attest to the sun and the moon revolving around Meru; and the Pajjosavaṇākappa (KS2-3 39)48 mentions the concept in one of the fourteen dreams of Triśalā, the soon-to-be mother of Mahāvīra.49 However, the concept of a central mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve is absent from vedic literature, and only found for the first time in brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata. 50 The Pāli canon also attests to Mount Meru, but calls it Sineru or Neru.51 There is a Sineru Sutta in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, 52 and a Neru Jātaka. 53 In buddhist literature, Meru is associated with two systems. The first is the cakkavāla, or “single world” system,54 which describes the cosmos as a flat disc with heavens and meditation realms above, and hells below. There are seven concentric golden mountain ranges with Mount Meru at the centre, and the cakkavāla, a circular mountain range made of iron, lies at the outermost perimeter of the disc. The second is the system known as “sāhasra cosmology,” which has a thousand universes each with its own Meru, seven concentric rings of mountains, a sun, and a moon.55 In both systems the wind, moon, sun, and stars revolve around Meru.
4. ConclusionThe examples presented here not exhaustive, but attest, nonetheless, to the prominence of “the number eighty-four and its multiples” and the concept of Mount Meru in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature; as well as the concept of 8,400,000 great kalpas in Ājīvikism. Although the earliest jaina texts which have come down to us are relatively late, and their dating problematic, if the examples in the jaina canon are considered together with the other numerous examples in the Pāli canon, and those in Ājīvikism, this strongly suggests that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture of Greater Magadha. It is possible that the concept of Mount Meru was introduced into brahmanical literature as part of the overall response to the crisis that Brahmanism faced under the Nandas and Mauryas. At that time, Buddhism, Jainism, and other heterodox sects were favoured by rulers over Brahmanism - a situation which threatened Brahmanism's survival.56 Brahmanism responded by developing various strategies to regain its former prominence in society. The reworking of vedic cosmology, and the introduction of new cosmological concepts from the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, may have been one of those strategies. For example, in vedic literature, the heavenly Sarasvatī falls down to earth on the world tree at Prakṣa Prāsravaṇa57, but in the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.27)58, it is the heavenly Gaṅgā that falls down to earth on the summit of Mount Meru. By reworking and/or combining certain traditional vedic cosmological concepts, with those that were popular and prominent in the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, one might speculate that the redactors of the Mahābhārata were better armed, ideologically, to persuade rulers of their superiority as ritual specialists. 59 The result, as we know, was that the Brahmins eventually succeeded in making themselves indispensable to rulers again, and not only as ritual specialists, but also as counselors to rulers for statecraft and governing, interpreters of divine signs and omens, pronouncers of curses and blessings, etc. (Bronkhorst, 2007: 271-73; 2008: 6 ff.; 2011: 30- 31). From the Mahābhārata onwards, the concept of Mount Meru became the pivot of brahmanical cosmology, and remained henceforth unchanged and prominent in brahmanical literature and sacred geography to the present day
The Ṛgveda mentions the mountains of Himavat (10.121.4)61 and Mūjavat (10.34.1). The later Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas mention Trikakud (Atharvaveda 4.9.8; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 3.1.3.12) or Trikakubh (Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā 3.6.3; Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā 23.1; Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā 25.4; Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa 22.14). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (1.8.1.8) mentions manor avasarpaṇam, the mountain to which Manu’s vessel is taken by the fish to save him from being washed away by the flood. The Taittirīya Āraṇyaka mentions Mahāmeru (1.7.1– 3),62 Krauñca (1.31.2), and Maināka (1.31.2). However, none of these texts introduce the concept of a mountain at the centre of the world called Mount Meru, or called by any other name, and nor do they mention a mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve.
Willibald Kirfel (1920/1990), in his major study on Indian cosmology, Die Kosmographie der Inder nach den Quellen dargestellt, compares the brahmanical, buddhist, and jaina cosmological systems, and gives an account of Mount Meru's characteristics in all three systems. He concludes that the early brahmanical cosmology forms the basis of the later cosmology found in the epics and purāṇas,1 and that of the buddhist and jaina systems, as well.2 Suzuko Ohira (1994: 22, §69) also adheres to Kirfel's point of view, and claims in her study of the Viyāhapannatti (= Bhagavatīsūtra): “[...] both Jainas and Buddhists built their own cosmographical features after the models of the Hindus.”3
Contrary to Kirfel's hypothesis, this paper will present some provisional ideas that suggest that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture out of which Jainism and Buddhism arose, the culture of Greater Magadha.4 Thus, the introduction of the concept of Mount Meru into brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata5 might, I propose, be the result of a different historical reality than that which Kirfel perceives. That is to say, one that gives rise to a syncretic form of brahmanical cosmology.6 This hypothesis is based on the following observations: 1) The cosmological concept of Mount Meru (hereafter defined as: “the golden mountain at the centre of the earth and the universe, around which the heavenly bodies revolve”) is prominent in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature, but strikingly absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata. 7 2) Its late introduction into brahmanical literature marks the shift from vedic to epic and purāṇic cosmology at a time when brahmanical contacts with Buddhism, Jainism, and their region of origin, Greater Magadha, were possible and presumably established
3) “The number eighty-four and its multiples,” a special group of numbers associated with cosmological phenomena and entities of importance, is prominent in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, but absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata.9 The first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number from this group with cosmological purport is found in Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10)10, which states that Mount Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth. Concerning “the number eighty-four and its multiples,” it should be noted that my hypothesis does not rely upon research into the symbolism of these numbers. For, although these numbers are very prominent, their significance is nowhere explained. Thus, regardless of any symbolic meaning they may have possibly (but not necessarily) had for the various religious traditions in the early historical period, there is evidence for these numbers associated with cosmological phenomena or entities in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, and none for them in brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata. 11 This, I believe, is a sufficient basis upon which to question their historical implications.12 Consider the examples which follow.
2. The Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons
2.1 The lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa and Ara The Pajjosavaṇākappa, a Śvetāmbara canonical text, states that Ṛṣabha's earthly lifespan was 8,400,000 puvva. 14 The Jambuddīvapannatti 15, the sixth upaṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, also attests to 8,400,000 puvva for Ṛṣabha's lifespan (JDP1 2.40; JDP2 2.88)16 and the same number of puvva for Bharata's lifespan (JDP1 3.87.2; JDP2 3.225).17 The Viyāhapannatti, the fifth aṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, states, more generally, that the lifespans of naradevā (cakkavaṭṭtī) last a minimum of seven hundred years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.13); and those of devāhidevā (titthagara), a minimum of seventy-two years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.15)18. The Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, a non-canonical Śvetāmbara universal history also confirms Ṛṣabha's and Bharata's lifespans of 8,400,000 puvva, and mentions Śreyāṃsa's lifespan of 8,400,000 years, and Ara's of 84,000 years.20 2.2 Calculable (Gaṇiya) Time Measures
In the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions, “the number eighty-four and its multiples” are omnipresent in the category of “calculable” (gaṇiya) time measures.21 Their function is to designate calculable time periods of great magnitude within the osappiṇī (“down-moving”) and ussappiṇī (“up-moving”) two half-motions of jaina cosmic time.22 Hence, the use of these numbers to designate the extraordinarily long earthly lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, and Ara.23
Textual paradigms for the Śvetāmbara gaṇiya time measures are found in the Viyāhapannatti (Viy3 6.7.114) and Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 2.24; JDP2 2.4.4); and those of the Digambara gaṇiya time measures in the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.282 ff.), Trilokasāra and Trilokadīpikā.24 The Viyāhapannatti and Jambuddīvapannatti cite the gaṇiya time measures from the smallest unit of time (one samaya) up to the largest “calculable” unit (one sīsapahelika). From the time unit of eighty-four vāsasayasahassa upwards, “the number eighty-four and its multiples” are omnipresent in this system of time measures.
2.3 The Number 84,000 and the Height of Mount Meru
The Digambara Tiloyapannatti25 states that there are five Merus (here also called Mandara) in all. One in the centre of Jambūdīva (Jambūdvīpa): 99,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it;26 two on the island-continent of Dhādaīsaṇḍa (Dhātakīkhaṇḍa): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it, respectively;27 and two are on the half island-continent of Pokkhara (Puṣkarārdha): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1000 yojanas below it, respectively.28 The Trilokasāra29 provides the same information as the Tiloyapannatti
In the Pāli canon, the Aṅguttara Nikāya states that Sineru (Meru) is 84,000 yojanas high and wide, and that it descends 84,000 yojanas beneath the sea.31 There are other significant occurrences of the number 84,000 in buddhist literature. For example, there are the 84,000 dharmaskandhas of the Buddha32 - i.e., portions of the teaching relating to laws (dharmaskandhavaśena caturaśītisahasravidham)33 - and the 84,000 stūpas containing the relics of Śākyamuni34 which were distributed by Aśoka out of the original eight portions. In the Bhīṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10),35 as well as in the purāṇas,36 it is stated that Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth and descends 16,000 yojanas below it. The height of Mount Meru in the Mahābhārata is the first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number with cosmological significance from the group of “the number eightyfour and its multiples.”
The Concept of Mount Meru in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons
The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 4.132)43 describes Mount Meru (here called Mandara44) as being situated in the very middle of Jambuddīva, the innermost circular continent at the centre of the earth and the universe; and (JDP1 7.159 ff.) 45 as the mountain around which the suns, moons, constellations, and planets revolve. The Sūrapannatti (Sūrap 19.22.10-11;
19.23)46 and the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.435)47 also attest to the sun and the moon revolving around Meru; and the Pajjosavaṇākappa (KS2-3 39)48 mentions the concept in one of the fourteen dreams of Triśalā, the soon-to-be mother of Mahāvīra.49 However, the concept of a central mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve is absent from vedic literature, and only found for the first time in brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata. 50 The Pāli canon also attests to Mount Meru, but calls it Sineru or Neru.51 There is a Sineru Sutta in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, 52 and a Neru Jātaka. 53 In buddhist literature, Meru is associated with two systems. The first is the cakkavāla, or “single world” system,54 which describes the cosmos as a flat disc with heavens and meditation realms above, and hells below. There are seven concentric golden mountain ranges with Mount Meru at the centre, and the cakkavāla, a circular mountain range made of iron, lies at the outermost perimeter of the disc. The second is the system known as “sāhasra cosmology,” which has a thousand universes each with its own Meru, seven concentric rings of mountains, a sun, and a moon.55 In both systems the wind, moon, sun, and stars revolve around Meru.
4. ConclusionThe examples presented here not exhaustive, but attest, nonetheless, to the prominence of “the number eighty-four and its multiples” and the concept of Mount Meru in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature; as well as the concept of 8,400,000 great kalpas in Ājīvikism. Although the earliest jaina texts which have come down to us are relatively late, and their dating problematic, if the examples in the jaina canon are considered together with the other numerous examples in the Pāli canon, and those in Ājīvikism, this strongly suggests that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture of Greater Magadha. It is possible that the concept of Mount Meru was introduced into brahmanical literature as part of the overall response to the crisis that Brahmanism faced under the Nandas and Mauryas. At that time, Buddhism, Jainism, and other heterodox sects were favoured by rulers over Brahmanism - a situation which threatened Brahmanism's survival.56 Brahmanism responded by developing various strategies to regain its former prominence in society. The reworking of vedic cosmology, and the introduction of new cosmological concepts from the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, may have been one of those strategies. For example, in vedic literature, the heavenly Sarasvatī falls down to earth on the world tree at Prakṣa Prāsravaṇa57, but in the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.27)58, it is the heavenly Gaṅgā that falls down to earth on the summit of Mount Meru. By reworking and/or combining certain traditional vedic cosmological concepts, with those that were popular and prominent in the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, one might speculate that the redactors of the Mahābhārata were better armed, ideologically, to persuade rulers of their superiority as ritual specialists. 59 The result, as we know, was that the Brahmins eventually succeeded in making themselves indispensable to rulers again, and not only as ritual specialists, but also as counselors to rulers for statecraft and governing, interpreters of divine signs and omens, pronouncers of curses and blessings, etc. (Bronkhorst, 2007: 271-73; 2008: 6 ff.; 2011: 30- 31). From the Mahābhārata onwards, the concept of Mount Meru became the pivot of brahmanical cosmology, and remained henceforth unchanged and prominent in brahmanical literature and sacred geography to the present day
The Ṛgveda mentions the mountains of Himavat (10.121.4)61 and Mūjavat (10.34.1). The later Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas mention Trikakud (Atharvaveda 4.9.8; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 3.1.3.12) or Trikakubh (Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā 3.6.3; Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā 23.1; Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā 25.4; Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa 22.14). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (1.8.1.8) mentions manor avasarpaṇam, the mountain to which Manu’s vessel is taken by the fish to save him from being washed away by the flood. The Taittirīya Āraṇyaka mentions Mahāmeru (1.7.1– 3),62 Krauñca (1.31.2), and Maināka (1.31.2). However, none of these texts introduce the concept of a mountain at the centre of the world called Mount Meru, or called by any other name, and nor do they mention a mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve.
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