A treatise on Samkhya
Because the term "sämkhya" means ''enumeration" or "relating to number," one reasonable point of departure for presenting the Sàmkhya philosophical system as a "complete system of human communication" is to outline the more prominent sets of enumerations.
(A) Enumerations relating to the basic principles (tattvas) The set of "25. First arid foremost, of course, is the set of 25 that encompasses the basic principles of the system, namely:
(1) pure consciousness (purusa), (2) primordial materiality (mülaprakrti), (3) intellect {buddhi or mahat), (4 ). egoity (ahamkära ), and (5) mind (manas)—both a sense capacity and an action capacity; (6 ) hearing (hotra ), (7) touching (tvac), (8) seeing (caksus), (9) tasting (rasana), and (10) smelling (ghräna ) ; (11 ) speaking (väc), (12) grasping/prehending (päni), (13) walking/motion (päda), (14) excreting (päyu), and (15) procreating (upastha) ; (16) sound (sabda), (17) contact (sparsa), (18) form(rüpa), (19) taste (rasa), and (20) smell (gandha); (21) "space"/ether (äkäsa), (22) wind/air , (23) fire (tejas), (24) water(#/>), and (25) earth (prithivi).
In other words, only items (1) and (2) exist in some sense as "distinct" or "separate" from one another. The two are described in Sämkhya philosophy as being ungenerated, outside of ordinary space and time, stable, simple, unsupported, nonmergent (or nondissolvable ), without parts, and independent (SK 10).9 The relation between them is one of simple copresence (SK 19). Pure consciousness is inherently inactive, but primordial materiality is inherently generative in the sense that it is capable of generating a set of discrete or manifest subdivisions when activated by the catalytic presence of pure consciousness. Items (3 ) through (25 ) make up the various subdivisions of primordial materiality and are, thus, internal to primordial materiality or represent "parts" of a totally functioning "whole," which is primordial materiality. These twenty-three subdivisions are described as being generated, temporal, spatial, unstable, composite, supported, mergent (or dissolvable), made up of parts, and contingent (SK 10). Seven of the subdivisions of primordial materiality, namely, intellect, egoity, and the five subtle elements are described as being both generated, that is to say, émergents from primordial materiality, and generative, that is to say, capable of generating subsequent subdivisions. The remaining sixteen subdivisions, namely, the mind, the five sense capacities, the five action capacities, and the five gross elements are only generated, that is to say, incapable of generating additional subdivisions. Intellect is generated out of primordial materiality but also generates egoity. Egoity is generated out of intellect but also generates the mind, the five sense capacities, the five action capacities, and the five subtle elements. The five subtle elements are generated out of egoity but also generate the five gross elements. Subtle elements are so called because they are the generic (avisesa ) material essences for all specific (visesa ) elements. They are imperceptible to ordinary persons, whereas gross elements can be perceived by ordinary persons. The subtle elements are the generic presuppositions for the experience of all specific objectivity. Five kinds of specific sensations may be experienced, namely, specific vibrations via the ear (speaking, music, sounds, and so forth), specific contacts via the skin (hot, cold, and so forth), specific forms via the eyes (colors, shapes), specific tastes via the tongue (bitter, sweet), and specific smells via the nose. According to Sämkhya, the apprehension of a specific vibration is only possible if there is an undifferentiated generic receptivity for sound, or put differently, if the experiencer is in some sense actually constituted by the generic, material essence of sound, that is, actually made up of a subtle sound element. The subtle sound element itself is not any particular sound. It is the generic essence of sound, thé presupposition for all particular sounds, the universal possibility of sound-as-such. Similarly, the apprehension of a specific contact is only possible if there is an undifferentiated generic receptivity for touch, the universal possibility of touch-as-such, namely, the subtle touch element, and so forth. The subtle elements, therefore, are not functions or capacities (as are, for example, the five senses or the motor capacities of an organism) nor are they the actual sense organs (eye, ear, and so forth) which, of courseware aggregates of gross elements. They are, rather, subtle, material essences or presuppositions with which perceptual and motor functioning correlate and through which certain aspects of the material world become differentiated. If such subtle, material essences or presuppositions were not present, no specific objects could possibly be experienced or become manifest, and in this sense the subtle elements correlate with and may be said to "generate" the gross elements. In the absence of subtle elements, in other words, there would only be an unmanifest mass of primordial materiality. Some have suggested that the subtle elements might be usefully compared to Platonic ideas or universals, but it must be kept in mind that for Sâmkhya all such ideas or universals have some sort of subtle, material basis (requiring, in other words, a reconceptualization of idealism in terms of reductive materialism, as will be discussed further in the sequel).10 Regarding the manner in which gross elements are derived from subtle elements, the important Sâmkhya texts differ, suggesting that the manner of derivation was an open issue even in the classical period. The Kärikä itself simply asserts that the fwt gross elements are derived from the five subtle elements (SK 22 and 28). Some commentaries {The Tattvakaumudi, Mätharavrtti, Jayamangaläy and so forth) argue for a so-called "accumulation theory" of derivation, according to which each successive subtle element combines with the preceding ones in order to generate a gross element.11 The subtle sound element generates the space/ether gross element {äkä§a)\ the subtle touch element and the subtle sound element generate the gross air/wind element (vayu); the subtle form element with the subtle sound and touch elements generate the gross fire element (tejas); the subtle taste element with subtle sound, touch, and form elements generate the gross water element (äp); and the subtle smell element with the subtle sound, touch, form, and taste elements generate the gross earth element (prthvi ). According to the Yuktidipikä (Pandeya edition, p. 91 and pp. 117-118, and hereafter all page references are to the Pandeya edition), this "accumulation theory" is attributed to Varsaganya. The commentary of Gaudapäda argues, however, that each subtle element is capable of generating each gross element singly. The Chinese commentary on the Kärikä offers yet another interpretation.12 According to it, each subtle element generates not only a respective gross element but a respective sense capacity as well. Thus, the subtle sound element generates not only äkäia but also the sense capacity of hearing (frotra), and so forth. Although an attractive idea, it tends to confuse the actual physical sense organ with an actual sense capacity. This may well be an old notion, but it is hard to imagine that the final philosophical system would have settled for such a view. Still other East Asian commentaries offer further interpretations, according to one of which the five subtle elements generate not only gross elements (in an accumulation manner) but the entire set of eleven sense and action capacities as well.13 For ïsvarakrsna and the classical tradition, however, it is clear enough that the five subtle elements are only generative of the five gross elements (and not the various sense and action capacities), although the manner of derivation was evidently a continuing matter of debate. All specific objects (visaya ) in the phenomenal empirical world of ordinary experience are collocations or aggregations of the various gross elements and are never themselves numbered as basic principles.
(A) Enumerations relating to the basic principles (tattvas) The set of "25. First arid foremost, of course, is the set of 25 that encompasses the basic principles of the system, namely:
(1) pure consciousness (purusa), (2) primordial materiality (mülaprakrti), (3) intellect {buddhi or mahat), (4 ). egoity (ahamkära ), and (5) mind (manas)—both a sense capacity and an action capacity; (6 ) hearing (hotra ), (7) touching (tvac), (8) seeing (caksus), (9) tasting (rasana), and (10) smelling (ghräna ) ; (11 ) speaking (väc), (12) grasping/prehending (päni), (13) walking/motion (päda), (14) excreting (päyu), and (15) procreating (upastha) ; (16) sound (sabda), (17) contact (sparsa), (18) form(rüpa), (19) taste (rasa), and (20) smell (gandha); (21) "space"/ether (äkäsa), (22) wind/air , (23) fire (tejas), (24) water(#/>), and (25) earth (prithivi).
In other words, only items (1) and (2) exist in some sense as "distinct" or "separate" from one another. The two are described in Sämkhya philosophy as being ungenerated, outside of ordinary space and time, stable, simple, unsupported, nonmergent (or nondissolvable ), without parts, and independent (SK 10).9 The relation between them is one of simple copresence (SK 19). Pure consciousness is inherently inactive, but primordial materiality is inherently generative in the sense that it is capable of generating a set of discrete or manifest subdivisions when activated by the catalytic presence of pure consciousness. Items (3 ) through (25 ) make up the various subdivisions of primordial materiality and are, thus, internal to primordial materiality or represent "parts" of a totally functioning "whole," which is primordial materiality. These twenty-three subdivisions are described as being generated, temporal, spatial, unstable, composite, supported, mergent (or dissolvable), made up of parts, and contingent (SK 10). Seven of the subdivisions of primordial materiality, namely, intellect, egoity, and the five subtle elements are described as being both generated, that is to say, émergents from primordial materiality, and generative, that is to say, capable of generating subsequent subdivisions. The remaining sixteen subdivisions, namely, the mind, the five sense capacities, the five action capacities, and the five gross elements are only generated, that is to say, incapable of generating additional subdivisions. Intellect is generated out of primordial materiality but also generates egoity. Egoity is generated out of intellect but also generates the mind, the five sense capacities, the five action capacities, and the five subtle elements. The five subtle elements are generated out of egoity but also generate the five gross elements. Subtle elements are so called because they are the generic (avisesa ) material essences for all specific (visesa ) elements. They are imperceptible to ordinary persons, whereas gross elements can be perceived by ordinary persons. The subtle elements are the generic presuppositions for the experience of all specific objectivity. Five kinds of specific sensations may be experienced, namely, specific vibrations via the ear (speaking, music, sounds, and so forth), specific contacts via the skin (hot, cold, and so forth), specific forms via the eyes (colors, shapes), specific tastes via the tongue (bitter, sweet), and specific smells via the nose. According to Sämkhya, the apprehension of a specific vibration is only possible if there is an undifferentiated generic receptivity for sound, or put differently, if the experiencer is in some sense actually constituted by the generic, material essence of sound, that is, actually made up of a subtle sound element. The subtle sound element itself is not any particular sound. It is the generic essence of sound, thé presupposition for all particular sounds, the universal possibility of sound-as-such. Similarly, the apprehension of a specific contact is only possible if there is an undifferentiated generic receptivity for touch, the universal possibility of touch-as-such, namely, the subtle touch element, and so forth. The subtle elements, therefore, are not functions or capacities (as are, for example, the five senses or the motor capacities of an organism) nor are they the actual sense organs (eye, ear, and so forth) which, of courseware aggregates of gross elements. They are, rather, subtle, material essences or presuppositions with which perceptual and motor functioning correlate and through which certain aspects of the material world become differentiated. If such subtle, material essences or presuppositions were not present, no specific objects could possibly be experienced or become manifest, and in this sense the subtle elements correlate with and may be said to "generate" the gross elements. In the absence of subtle elements, in other words, there would only be an unmanifest mass of primordial materiality. Some have suggested that the subtle elements might be usefully compared to Platonic ideas or universals, but it must be kept in mind that for Sâmkhya all such ideas or universals have some sort of subtle, material basis (requiring, in other words, a reconceptualization of idealism in terms of reductive materialism, as will be discussed further in the sequel).10 Regarding the manner in which gross elements are derived from subtle elements, the important Sâmkhya texts differ, suggesting that the manner of derivation was an open issue even in the classical period. The Kärikä itself simply asserts that the fwt gross elements are derived from the five subtle elements (SK 22 and 28). Some commentaries {The Tattvakaumudi, Mätharavrtti, Jayamangaläy and so forth) argue for a so-called "accumulation theory" of derivation, according to which each successive subtle element combines with the preceding ones in order to generate a gross element.11 The subtle sound element generates the space/ether gross element {äkä§a)\ the subtle touch element and the subtle sound element generate the gross air/wind element (vayu); the subtle form element with the subtle sound and touch elements generate the gross fire element (tejas); the subtle taste element with subtle sound, touch, and form elements generate the gross water element (äp); and the subtle smell element with the subtle sound, touch, form, and taste elements generate the gross earth element (prthvi ). According to the Yuktidipikä (Pandeya edition, p. 91 and pp. 117-118, and hereafter all page references are to the Pandeya edition), this "accumulation theory" is attributed to Varsaganya. The commentary of Gaudapäda argues, however, that each subtle element is capable of generating each gross element singly. The Chinese commentary on the Kärikä offers yet another interpretation.12 According to it, each subtle element generates not only a respective gross element but a respective sense capacity as well. Thus, the subtle sound element generates not only äkäia but also the sense capacity of hearing (frotra), and so forth. Although an attractive idea, it tends to confuse the actual physical sense organ with an actual sense capacity. This may well be an old notion, but it is hard to imagine that the final philosophical system would have settled for such a view. Still other East Asian commentaries offer further interpretations, according to one of which the five subtle elements generate not only gross elements (in an accumulation manner) but the entire set of eleven sense and action capacities as well.13 For ïsvarakrsna and the classical tradition, however, it is clear enough that the five subtle elements are only generative of the five gross elements (and not the various sense and action capacities), although the manner of derivation was evidently a continuing matter of debate. All specific objects (visaya ) in the phenomenal empirical world of ordinary experience are collocations or aggregations of the various gross elements and are never themselves numbered as basic principles.
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