Navagrahas (Sūrya, Candra/Soma, etc.)

The term navagraha is usually translated as “the nine planets.” In Hindu astrology, the word graha (seizer) is used to refer, primarily, to any heavenly body apparently traversing the sky against the background of the fixed constellations, and, secondarily, to certain mathematically derived points. The sun and moon are therefore, in this sense of the word, grahas or planets, and will be referred to as such in this article. (This accords with older usage of the word planet, originally Greek for wandering [star].) Each planet has numerous Sanskrit names and epithets; astrological texts sometimes also refer to the planets by Sanskritized versions of their Greek names. In this article, the planetary deities are referred to by Sanskrit names, while English nomenclature is used for the planets in their astronomical and astrological contexts.

The term “seizer” may originally have referred only to Rāhu as the cause of eclipses (see below). In the classical sense, however, it may be understood either as something “influencing” human beings or as that which “overtakes” the fixed stars (nakṣatras). In the former sense, the word graha is also used to denote spirits or demons, especially possessing children. Such “seizers,” mentioned for instance in medical literature, are not identical with the planetary deities.

The vedic hymns mention the stars, sun, and moon, but name no other planets; nor are these referred to in the earliest sources of Indian astronomy (jyotiṣa), but only in texts dating to the last centuries before the Common Era, a period after cultural contacts between India and Greece had been established. Early astrological texts primarily discuss the five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, which came to be known as “stellar planets” (tārāgraha), along with the sun and moon, the “luminary planets” (prakāśakagraha). To this list the two “dark” or “shadowy” planets (tamograha, chāyāgraha) Rāhu and Ketu were eventually added (more on these below).

Early sources discussing the nine planets do not place them in any fixed or standardized order. After the gradual introduction of the seven-day week beginning in the 3rd century CE, however, the first seven planets were generally enumerated in the order of the weekdays that they are considered to rule, beginning with Sunday: the sun, the moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn. Rāhu and Ketu are typically added at the end. Worship of the navagrahas is wholly dependent on and motivated by the development and gradually increasing status of horoscopic astrology (derived from Hellenistic sources) from this time onwards.

The planetary deities are all perceived as male, sometimes with one or more female consorts, although the moon and Venus (and occasionally Mercury) are considered astrologically to rule or symbolize females. Iconographic representations of the navagrahas have varied historically as well as geographically. The oldest preserved images of the nine deities as a group date from the early 7th century CE, images of the first seven or eight deities occurring about a century earlier. Textual depictions of the navagrahas, often more detailed though similarly variegated, likely originated around the same time and were gradually adapted to pan-Indic iconographical conventions. The descriptions given in this article are based primarily on textual sources.

Sūrya (the Sun)

The sun is known as Sūrya, Āditya, Ravi, and by various names meaning “The Radiant One,” “Lord of the Day,” “Jewel of the Day,” “The Thousand-Rayed One,” “The Hot-Rayed One,” and so on. As in many cultures, sun worship in India antedates recorded history, as attested by archaeological findings. Its earliest textual sources are the rgvedic hymns, a substantial portion of which are devoted to Sūrya, the visible sun, or to his aspect as Savitṛ (“Vivifier” or “Impeller” of creatures). The most famous such passage is the sāvitrī or gāyatrī hymn (ṚV. 3.62.10), to be recited daily at sunrise, noon, and sunset by initiated men of the three upper varṇas. A myth related to this practice describes how Sūrya each morning does battle with the mandeha demons (a group of demons who are thought daily to obstruct the rising of the sun) that are attempting to devour him. Offerings of water (arghya) by the devout, accompanied by the sāvitrī hymn, are then transformed into thunderbolt weapons (vajra) enabling Sūrya to emerge victorious. Many other vedic deities, including Viṣṇu, are more or less closely connected to Sūrya and share in his solar qualities.

The vedic Sūrya is described metaphorically as a bull, stallion, or eagle, or pictured as a golden deity riding a golden, one-wheeled chariot drawn by seven horses. Early anthropomorphic images, dating from the last few centuries before the Common Era, often depict this chariot with four horses, possibly indicating a Hellenistic influence. Of greater importance, however, was the influence of Iranian and Scythian elements on the North Indian solar cult during the reign of the Indo-Scythian Kushana dynasty, beginning in the 1st century CE. Its impact can be seen in the enduring iconographical attributes of Sūrya, who is to be portrayed, as a 6th-century astrological text specifies, “in northern garb, covered from foot to chest” (BṛhSa. 57,46). A puranic myth attempts to account for this un-Indian form of dress: Sūrya’s consort Saṃjñā, being unable to bear her husband’s radiant heat, once left him and returned to her father, the divine craftsman Tvaṣṭṛ (see the section on Śani below). When Sūrya discovered this, he followed in a rage, but Tvaṣṭṛ pacified his son-in-law and persuaded him to have his excessive radiance trimmed away, fashioning weapons for various gods from the shavings. As Tvaṣṭṛ reached knee level, however, Sūrya refused to let him continue, and he agreed instead to cover the brilliance of his lower body with a pair of knee-length boots.

The extra-Indian iconography of Sūrya is not universal, however. Puranic, astrological, and ritual texts frequently prescribe that he be shown seated on a red lotus flower, his own form the same color, holding lotus flowers in his two hands, and riding a chariot drawn by seven horses. Alternatively, one hand may display the gesture of benediction (varadamudrā). Some texts specify that the chariot have one wheel with 12 spokes, or that the charioteer Aruṇa (“Dawn”) be included. Although Sūrya is an ancient and major divinity in his own right, he is also assigned tutelary deities (adhidevatā, pratyadhidevatā) in the pantheon: Rudra-Śiva and Agni, god of fire. He is also said to be the son of the ṛṣi Kaśyapa.

Astrologically, the sun is termed a fierce or malefic (krūra) planet on account of its intense heat, although its significations are more auspicious than those of the other malefics. By mostly natural or intuitive correlations, the sun is considered to govern power, glory, kings and rulers, the father, gold, and the self ( ātman ).

Worship of Sūrya as the principal deity remained powerful in northern and eastern India throughout the medieval period, Iranian magi (Old Pers. maguš) serving as priests and eventually being incorporated into the Brahman fold (Hinduism and Zoroastrianism). After the 15th century, this Saura form of Hinduism (i.e. followers of Sūrya) was eclipsed by other denominations, but Sūrya still holds the position of “first among equals” in the context of the planetary deities.

Candra (the Moon)

The moon is known as Candramas or (in the later language) simply Candra, Soma, or Indu, and also by such epithets as “Lord of the Νight,” “Lord of the Stars,” “The Nectar-Rayed One,” and “The Cool-Rayed One.” Like Sūrya, he is one of the ancient vedic divinities, but unlike the solar deity, he is not a very prominent one. The myths involving Candra tend to focus on the observable astronomical peculiarities of the moon.

Candra is particularly associated with the 27 or 28 constellations (nakṣatras) in the sky, sometimes known as “lunar mansions” and corresponding to the 27.3-day orbit of the moon around the earth. In one well-known myth, the nakṣatras are identified with the 27 daughters of the patriarch Dakṣa, all of whom were married to Candra. Unfortunately, Candra favored Rohiṇī above his other wives and spent most of his time with her. Rohiṇī’s sisters complained to their father, who cursed Candra to waste away gradually. Without the nourishing light of the moon, however, plants withered and died, and in consequence, all beings suffered. The gods then approached Dakṣa to beg mercy for Candra, but the curse could not be revoked. On the condition that he henceforth spend equal time with each of his wives, however, Dakṣa promised that Candra would be rejuvenated for a fortnight by bathing at the sacred site (tīrtha) called Prabhāsa (“Splendor”) on the Sarasvatī River. As a final instruction, Dakṣa advised his son-in-law never to slight a woman or a Brahman. Another myth involving Candra is discussed in the section on Budha below.

Like Lakṣmī, the nectar of immortality, and like other wondrous beings and objects, Candra is said to have been born of the churning of the ocean of milk (Kṣīrodamathana; see the section on Rāhu and Ketu below). His tutelary deities are female: Āpas (“Waters”) and Umā or Pārvatī (his name Soma being interpreted as sa-uma, “accompanied by Umā”). Iconographically, he is described as wearing white garments and ornaments, riding a white horse or a chariot drawn by white horses, holding a mace in one hand, and displaying the gesture of benediction with the other. Older representations sometimes portray Candra in ascetic style, carrying a rosary (akṣamālā) and a water pot (kamaṇḍalu). The crescent moon is often seen on or near his head, an attribute also peculiar to Śiva.

In astrology, the moon is considered a benefic planet when bright and waxing, less so when dark or waning. It rules women (particularly the mother), water, white objects, and occupations related to them, and it is particularly associated with the mind. It is often considered the most important planet of all: astrological texts state that when the creator placed the planets in his scales, the moon outweighed all the others taken together.

Aṅgāraka (Mars)

Mars is referred to as Aṅgāraka (“The Charcoal,” alluding to the planet’s reddish color) or Maṅgala (“The Auspicious One,” probably a euphemistic epithet), or by names such as Bhauma or Kuja (“Son of the Earth”). He is also called Vakra, “Crooked,” which in astronomy-astrology carries the technical meaning “retrograde.” As all five “stellar” planets occasionally move in a retrograde fashion, however, it is uncertain whether Vakra as a name of Mars should be taken in this technical sense. The earliest textual references to the planet, generally under the names Bhauma and Aṅgāraka, occur in the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa and are mainly in the nature of astral omens.

Several puranic myths recount the birth of Aṅgāraka from the earth, personified as the goddess Bhūmi (Bhūdevī). A few of these make him the offspring of Viṣṇu, but more often the paternity is assigned to Śiva. Some texts connect the event with the myth of the self-immolation of Śiva’s wife Satī at the sacrifice performed by her father Dakṣa. Consumed with rage and grief, Śiva perspired, and a drop of sweat fell to the earth. It first became a great fire, drying up the oceans, and then assumed human form. After destroying Dakṣa’s sacrifice, this being, known as Vīrabhadra, was made a planet by Śiva and given the name Aṅgāraka. In other versions, the drop of Śiva’s perspiration falls to the earth during a battle with the demon Andhaka, or else when he is interrupted in lovemaking by Agni, the god of fire, fearing the birth of a rival. All versions agree, however, on the hot, violent, and destructive nature of the red planet, and on its being born from the earth.

In the greater Hindu pantheon, Aṅgāraka is naturally associated with Bhūmi, as well as with Skanda (alternatively known as Kārttikeya or Subrahmaṇya), as his tutelary deities. With the latter he shares not only a theogonic connection with Śiva and the earth, but also his affinity with warfare and certain iconographic attributes. These include the spear (śakti) and, particularly in representations from eastern India, the warriors’ peacock-like side-locks of hair (śikhaṇḍaka) and a peacock mount. More commonly, however, Aṅgāraka is depicted as riding a ram, an animal generally associated with Agni. Astrological and puranic texts also describe Aṅgāraka as wearing red garlands and garments, his four hands holding lance (or sometimes trident), spear, and mace and displaying the gesture of benediction.

In astrology, Mars is considered a hot, fierce, and malefic planet, ruling weapons, fire, and all occupations involving them, from cooks to soldiers to robbers. He is also particularly related to the earth and to brothers. Certain placements of Mars in a person’s birth horoscope are thought to cause “Mars affliction” (maṅgaladoṣa, making the person afflicted a māṅgala or māṅgalika). This is considered an ill omen for marital happiness, and horoscopes of prospective spouses are often examined for such afflictions.

Budha (Mercury)

Mercury is called Budha (“The Wise One”) or Saumya (“Son of the Moon”), or other names having similar meanings. He is also known as Rājaputra ("King’s Son"), supposedly alluding to King Soma, a vedic epithet here applied to the moon.

The principal myth involving Budha is the one relating to his birth. The moon god, Candra, full of pride after performing a rājasūya or royal coronation sacrifice for himself, once happened upon Tārā, the wife of his preceptor Bṛhaspati (see below), on the banks of the Gaṅgā. Infatuated with her beauty as she emerged from her bath, Candra tried to seduce Tārā, but his advances were repelled. When he persevered, Tārā cursed him to be seized by Rāhu (see below). Nonetheless, Candra raped and abducted her. When Bṛhaspati learned what had happened and demanded his wife back, Candra first refused, but was eventually forced to relent in the face of a full-scale war. On being returned to her husband, Tārā was found to be pregnant. Requested to give up the child, she gave birth to a boy of golden splendor. Candra and Bṛhaspati both claimed the child as their own, but Tārā remained silent until the boy himself threatened to curse her unless she revealed his paternity. She then acknowledged the boy to be the son of Candra, who named him Budha. Candra was cursed by the gods to be marked by the sign of a deer (the spots on the moon) and to be split in two (the waning and waxing phases), but Śiva restored his honor by placing Candra as an ornament on his own head.

In another well-known myth, Budha marries Iḷā or Iḍā, who had been born a girl, was transformed into the boy Sudyumna, and later again changed into a woman upon entering the forbidden grove of the goddess Pārvatī. Through Iḷā, Budha is considered the ancestor of the lunar dynasty of kings, the first of which was their son Purūravas. The connection of Budha with such a variable creature as Iḷā is hardly coincidental, mirroring as it does the ever-changing nature of Mercury in its motion as well as its astrological significations.

Budha’s tutelary deities in the greater pantheon are Nārāyaṇa and Viṣṇu (or, occasionally, Viṣṇu and Puruṣa), often wholly identified with each other. Both of these have strong solar connotations, as does Budha himself, with his powerful luster. Textual sources depict him as having the color of the pericarp of a lotus, wearing yellow garlands and garments, and mounted on a lion. With his four hands he holds sword, shield, and mace and displays the gesture of benediction. Some texts, however, give him a bow, and in representations from eastern India, Budha is often portrayed as an archer. This feature too has been connected with a solar motif by some scholars, while others have seen it as a sign of his princely status or as an affiliation with Kāmadeva, the god of love, for whom the bow is an important attribute.

Astrologically, Mercury is considered a neutral and changeable planet, benefic when conjunct benefic planets and malefic with malefic planets. He rules all forms of learning and speech, including the discipline of astrology itself, and particularly governs students and scholars.

Bṛhaspati (Jupiter)

Jupiter is identified with the vedic deity Bṛhaspati, priest (purohita) of the gods and protector of the Brahmans. He is known by that name or simply as Guru (“The Preceptor”), or by such epithets as “Preceptor of the Gods” and “The One Revered by the King of Gods.” The latter epithet indicates Bṛhaspati’s particular connection with Indra.

The vedic Bṛhaspati was not a planetary deity, but already in the Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa (3.1.1.5), he is mentioned in astronomical terms, as conjoining with the constellations. From the Mahābhārata onwards, Bṛhaspati’s identification with the planet Jupiter appears to be firmly established. The two most frequently encountered myths concerning Bṛhaspati also involve other planetary deities: for the birth of Budha to Candra by Bṛhaspati’s wife Tārā, see the section on Budha above; for the role of Bṛhaspati and his son Kaca in the battle against the demons under Śukra, see the section on Śukra below.

Bṛhaspati is regarded as the son of the ṛṣi Aṅgiras, and his tutelary deities are Brahmā and Indra. Unlike the planetary divinities discussed thus far, his iconographic features are not those of a young prince or warrior, but rather those of an older Brahman, often represented as bearded and potbellied. His color is described as yellowish or as that of molten gold, and his garments are yellow. Three of his hands hold the Brahmanical attributes of staff (daṇḍa), water pot, and rosary, while the fourth displays the gesture of benediction. Some sources, however, give him two hands holding a palm-leaf book and a rosary.

In astrology, Jupiter is a highly auspicious and benefic planet, governing wisdom, happiness, religious orthodoxy, and wealth. It is particularly associated with Brahmans, teachers, and the performance of sacrifice and other rituals, as well as with children and fertility.

Śukra (Venus)

Venus is known as Śukra (meaning “Bright” as well as “Semen”) and by epithets such as “Preceptor of the Demons” (the word for “demon” here being daitya , asura , or dānava ). Śukra is further identified with the ṛṣi Uśanas, descendant of Kavi and of Bhṛgu, and is known by all these names as well as by patronyms such as Kāvya and Bhārgava. Some sources make Śukra the son of Bhṛgu, others his grandson through Kavi. Kavi is also said in some accounts to be the original name of Śukra himself, who was given the name Śukra after having been swallowed by Śiva and having passed out of his body in the form of semen.

Perhaps the most well-known myth involving Śukra-Uśanas illustrates his similarity to, as well as his rivalry with, Bṛhaspati – both of them Brahmans and ṛṣis. In a long-standing struggle for supremacy between gods and demons, the gods appointed Bṛhaspati as their priest-preceptor, while the demons chose Śukra. As the battle wore on, the gods were dismayed to find their own numbers dwindling, while the demons were as numerous as ever. When the reason was found to be Śukra’s knowledge of the magical art (vidyā) of reviving those slain in battle, the gods sent Bṛhaspati’s son Kaca to become the disciple of Śukra and master this art. Śukra welcomed Kaca, but refused to teach him the secret. Learning of Kaca’s purpose, the other demons twice ambushed and killed him, only to see him revived by Śukra. The third time, they ground his body to a powder and mixed it with Śukra’s wine, which he drank unwittingly. When, at the request of his daughter who was in love with Kaca, Śukra tried to summon the missing disciple by his magical art, Kaca answered him feebly from within his own stomach. Śukra now faced a dilemma: to please his daughter he had to revive Kaca’s body, but he could not do so without destroying his own as Kaca sprang forth from it. He was therefore forced to teach Kaca the art of revivification so that, his own form restored, the disciple might call his master back to life. In this way, the gods eventually received the desired secret. After this incident, Śukra is said to have banned the drinking of wine among Brahmans.

Śukra is also involved in puranic versions of the myth of Viṣṇu’s three strides. When Viṣṇu in the shape of the dwarf-Brahman Vāmana ( avatāra ) tricked the demon king Bali into granting him three strides of land, Śukra, acting as the king’s counselor, attempted to prevent the deception. Making himself very small, he entered the spout of the ritual water vessel in order to stop the pouring of water onto the ground, which would seal the king’s vow. Vāmana, however, cleared the spout with a sharp blade of grass, putting out Śukra’s eye in the process. Śukra is therefore known as one-eyed.

The tutelary deities of Śukra are Indra and his consort Śacī. It is worth noting that Candra and Śukra (the moon and Venus) – the two planetary deities who, although themselves male, represent and govern females – are also the only ones associated with female divinities. Iconographically, Śukra is generally stated to be identical with Bṛhaspati, except that his color and garments are white rather than yellow. Some sources describe him as middle-aged.

Astrologically, Venus is a very benefic planet, similar to Jupiter but associated more with worldly happiness and less with religion. It governs beauty and pleasure of all kinds, from the sensual to the aesthetic, including the arts, music, and eroticism. It particularly signifies wives and women in general.

Śani (Saturn)

Saturn, the most distant and slowest-moving of the planets, is known by names as Manda (“Slow”), Śanaiścara or simply Śani (“Tardy”), or Sauri (“Son of the Sun”).

As mentioned above, puranic sources recount how Saṃjñā, the wife of the sun god Sūrya, secretly left her husband because she was unable to bear his intense heat. In her stead she created a substitute, Chāyā (“Shadow”), who was like herself in every respect. Saṃjñā then returned to her father’s house, leaving her three children Manu, Yama (the god of death), and Yamī in the care of Chāyā. Sūrya, unaware of the exchange, begot three more children by Chāyā. One of these was Śani, who is therefore known as the brother of Yama, and who shares some of his attributes.

Another puranic myth illustrates the ill fortune that Śani, however involuntarily, brings. Śani was devoted to the worship of Kṛṣṇa, and one day he was so immersed in meditation that he failed even to glance at his beautiful young wife, who had just emerged from her purificatory bath (following the menstrual period) in an amorous mood. Enraged by this slight, the lady cursed him with the evil eye: whatever he glanced at would be destroyed. On a later occasion, Śani was invited with the other gods to behold the newborn Gaṇeśa, son of Śiva and Pārvatī. Śani kept his eyes downcast, thereby offending the child’s mother. Although Śani related the reason for his reluctance, Pārvatī demanded that he look at her son. Taking Dharma as witness of his innocence, Śani then glanced at Gaṇeśa out of the corner of his eye, whereupon the child’s head was immediately destroyed. An elephant’s head was soon substituted for it by Viṣṇu, but Pārvatī was still so enraged that she cursed Śani to become lame.

In the greater pantheon, Śani’s tutelary deities are Yama and Prajāpati. With Yama he shares his dark color, often described as that of blue sapphire, and his terrifying appearance. He is veined, wears dark garments, and rides a vulture. When depicted standing, Śani is often shown in a somewhat limping posture. Some texts give him four arms holding spear, bow, and arrow and displaying the benedictory gesture, but others give him a trident or a khaṭvāṅga, an ascetic’s staff or club shaped like the foot of a bedstead.

In astrology, Saturn is considered a cold, cruel, and malefic planet, particularly ruling the old and decrepit, beggars, ascetics, unclean places, and all manner of black animals and objects. Its influence is particularly dreaded during the seven and a half years (Skt. sārdhasapta; Hind. sāṛhesātī) when the planet passes through the zodiac sign occupied by the moon in a person’s natal horoscope, as well as its two adjacent signs. Around the times of Saturn’s ingress into a new zodiacal sign, shrines dedicated to Śani are much frequented by worshippers just beginning their sāṛhesātī and wishing to ward off its evil effects.

Rāhu and Ketu

The last two planetary deities have a complex history. The Ṛgveda (5.40.5) tells of a demon named  Svarbhānu afflicting the sun with darkness. In the Atharvaveda (19.9.10), Rāhu occurs as a synonym for this demon, while the Chāndogyopaniṣad (8.13.1) speaks of the moon escaping “from the mouth of Rāhu.” Later texts confirm the role of Rāhu (perhaps derived from a verb meaning “to grasp”) as an eclipse demon swallowing the sun or moon.

With the increase of astronomical knowledge, eclipses were understood to be the result of the relative positions of the earth, sun, and moon. As the moon passes in front of the sun near the point where their apparent orbits intersect (the lunar node), it obscures the sun and a solar eclipse occurs. When the moon is on the other side of the earth, near the opposite node, the earth’s shadow falling on the moon causes a lunar eclipse. By the early centuries of the Common Era, Rāhu was thus identified with whichever lunar node happened to be involved in an eclipse. Some astronomical texts speak of the ascending or northern node as Rāhu’s mouth, and of the descending or southern node as his tail.

Ketu originally had no connection with Rāhu and was not included with it in the earliest texts of Indianized Hellenistic astrology (3rd to 4th cents. CE). The Sanskrit word ketu refers to something bright, such as a flame, as well as to a flag or banner. As such, it was a common word for celestial phenomena such as comets and meteors, more than a hundred of which were described in pre-Hellenistic texts on celestial omens. Eventually these Ketus were included collectively as the ninth item in the list of grahas or planets, but were still discussed in the plural. Only in the 8th or 9th century do the names Rāhu and Ketu seem to acquire the meanings that they have since held, being identified with the north and south nodes of the moon, respectively. This astronomically complementary nature of the two grahas, identifying them with the “head” and “tail” as mentioned above, harmonizes with the epic/puranic myth of their origin.

Wishing to obtain the nectar of immortality (amṛta), the gods and demons once joined forces to churn the great ocean of milk. Eventually Dhanvantari, the divine physician, emerged from the waters carrying a white vessel filled with the elixir. At this point the demons grabbed the vessel, refusing to share it. As they quarreled among themselves over who should drink first, the gods sought the counsel of Viṣṇu, who agreed to help them and appeared before the demons in the form of a ravishingly beautiful woman. Entranced, the demons begged her to settle their differences and distribute the nectar equally among them. Unbeknown to the demons, Viṣṇu then served them only wine, reserving the amṛta for the gods. The demon Svarbhānu, however, had disguised himself as a god and was thus served amṛta. Even as the elixir entered his throat, he was denounced by Sūrya and Candra (the sun and moon gods), and Viṣṇu immediately used his cakra or discus weapon (named Sudarśanacakra) to sever Svarbhānu’s head from his body. In older versions of the myth, only the head became immortal, having tasted amṛta; but according to later puranic variants, both head and body survived, becoming Rāhu and Ketu, respectively. From that day, an implacable enmity exists between the demon and the two luminaries.

Rāhu or Svarbhānu is otherwise known by names meaning “Son of Siṃhikā,” “Darkness,” “The Head,” “Serpent,” or “Lord of Serpents.” The serpent motif, possibly originating outside of India, is repeated in Rāhu’s somewhat obscure tutelary deities Kāla (meaning both “Black” and “Time,” with the connotation “Death”; see time and destiny) and Sarpa (“Serpent”); the two words together (kālasarpa) refer to the black cobra. Kāla is described as dark and ferocious in appearance, holding a noose and staff, and having snakes and scorpions for body hair, while the Sarpas (in the plural) are snakelike in their overall appearance, although carrying rosaries. Rāhu’s own iconography varies significantly. He is often represented either as a severed head or as a torso with one or two arms, but textual sources also include descriptions closer to those of the other planetary deities. He is sometimes said to be dark in color and mounted on a dark lion, his four hands holding a sword, shield, and spear, and displaying the gesture of benediction; but other texts depict him as empty-handed, or as holding half the lunar disc.

Ketu or the Ketus, often mentioned in the plural even in later texts, are also known as Śikhin (“Comet”) and by other names indicating the original sense of the word, with such meanings as “Smoky,” “Fiery,” or “Banner.” Their tutelary deities are Citragupta, an attendant of Yama recording good and evil deeds in life, and Brahmā. Iconographically, they are described as smoke-colored and two-armed, with distorted faces, mounted on vultures, holding maces, and displaying the gesture of benediction. As with Rāhu, physical representations vary, but are often serpentine in form.

Beyond a generally malefic nature, there is little consensus regarding the astrological significations of Rāhu and Ketu in classical literature. By modern practitioners, Rāhu is associated with worldly desires and enjoyments, Ketu with asceticism and renunciation.