Samatha

In conjunction with insight, vipassanā, samatha as mental calm or tranquility is a central aspect of the systematic cultivation of the mind in Buddhism.

Tranquility

In early Buddhist meditation theory, to develop samatha means to “settle” the mind, in the sense of making it steady, quiet, and concentrated. The development of samatha requires in particular the overcoming of certain mental states or conditions that are considered detrimental to deeper concentration. A standard listing of such conditions speaks of five “hindrances,” nīvaraṇa, which are sensual desire, ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry, and doubt.

After their successful removal, the attainment of absorption, jhāna, becomes possible. Such attainment can take place based on mindfulness of breathing, or else by developing the mental attitudes of loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, just to mention some out of the range of possible meditation practices that can lead to absorption attainment.

Systematic deepening of concentration in this way proceeds through a series of four absorptions, experiences of deep mental tranquility where the meditating subject and the object employed for meditation are experienced as merging with each other. The standard descriptions qualify the first absorption as aloof from any type of sensual distraction and being accompanied by spiritual forms of rapture, pīti, and happiness, sukha, that are the result of such aloofness. The first absorption is an experience of unification of the mind, which is maintained with the help of initial and sustained application of the mind, vitakka and vicāra. The degree of unification and inner pervasion with rapture and happiness experienced at this point is, according to the early Buddhist discourses, comparable to mixing bath powder with water for the purpose of taking a bath, where all the powder is thoroughly permeated and mixed with the water ([1], Vol. I, p. 74).

With further deepening of concentration, initial and sustained application of the mind fall away and the mind remains effortlessly stable and unified. At this point, the experience of rapture and happiness is not only based on aloofness from sensuality, but additionally born of the inner confidence and stability that result from the depth of concentration, once the second absorption has been reached. The aloofness and stability of such concentration accompanied by intense inner rapture and happiness finds an illustration in the image of a lake on top of a mountain which is fed by spring water welling up from within.

Eventually rapture, pīti, fades away and only happiness, sukha, remains. A sense of balance and inner clarity pervades this experience which by way of further deepening of concentration has become the attainment of the third absorption. The discourses compare the degree to which the whole experience at this stage is one of being immersed in happiness and profound concentration with the example of lotus flowers that are completely immersed in water.

Once even the subtle happiness of the third absorption is left behind, the fourth absorption can be attained, which transcends the dichotomy of pleasure and displeasure, being firmly and unshakably established in equanimity and deeply stable concentration. The inner purity of this experience and its total withdrawal from the outer world finds an illustration in the image of a person who is completely wrapped up in a white cloth, from head to toe.

Based on the attainment of the fourth absorption, according to early Buddhist meditation theory the mind has acquired such inner power and ability that the development of various supernatural abilities and powers becomes possible. These include telepathic knowledge of the minds of others and the recollection of one’s own past lives, just to mention two examples.

Alternatively, based on the fourth absorption the immaterial attainments can be developed, profound experiences of mental tranquility that transcend any experience related to what is material. Experiencing these requires going beyond the object of meditation, which formed the basis for the progress through the four absorptions, and which now is replaced by a set of progressively subtler notions.

With the first of these immaterial attainments, the former meditation object, which due to the unification of the mind during absorption has become an all embracing experience, is refined by being replaced with the notion of “boundless space.” In other words, the boundlessness of the former object remains, but the object itself is allowed to disappear, whereby the experience of matter is fully left behind.

The next step requires turning attention back to the mind that, by being absorbed in the notion of boundless space, has become boundless itself. In this way, the second immaterial attainment can be reached, which is based on the notion of “boundless consciousness.” At this point, not only matter is left behind, but also space.

Attending to this refined experience of boundless consciousness as something that is insubstantial in every respect, the notion of “nothingness” can become the basis for attaining the third immaterial attainment. By now, not only matter and space, but even the notion of the experiencing mind is being transcended.

Still another step can be taken at this point. This requires letting go of any notion at all, whereby the fourth immaterial attainment of “neither-perception-nor-non-perception” can be reached. At this stage, the experience is so subtle that it is no longer possible to say whether there is perception or not.

Progress through the four immaterial attainments thus takes place by a sublimation of the object of meditation, based on the depth of concentration reached with the fourth absorption. In other words, the development of the four absorptions depicts a deepening of concentration with any meditation object, whereas the four immaterial attainments are based on a specific progressive refinement of the meditation object.

Within the context of the noble eightfold path, which succinctly describes what from an early Buddhist perspective is required for progress to liberation, the development of samatha by way of the four absorptions has its place under the heading of “right concentration.” Such right concentration needs to be developed in cooperation with rightly directed view, intentions, speech, action, livelihood, effort, and mindfulness.

The development of samatha leads to a high degree of mastery over the mind and thereby forms a basis for the development of insight, vipassanā. When insight is developed by a calm and steady mind, such insight will be able to penetrate into the deeper regions of the mind and thereby bring about true inner change.

While vipassanā has the purpose of leading to the destruction of ignorance, the practice of tranquility is reckoned to be specifically aimed at the abandoning of passion ([2], Vol. I, p. 61). This, however, does not mean that these two aspects of meditation represent two different paths leading to two different goals. The above distinction only intends to draw attention to the specific task or quality of these two interdependent aspects of Buddhist meditation.

The experience of deep stages of concentration is one of intense pleasure and happiness, brought about by purely mental means, which eclipses any pleasure arising in dependence on material objects. In this way the development of samatha can become a powerful antidote to sensual desires, by divesting them of their former attraction.

Even though samatha on its own would not be able to lead to awakening, it thus does have an important function to perform for progress toward that aim. Hence, the path leading to the unconditioned requires both samatha and vipassanā ([3], Vol. IV, p. 359), both have to be developed as integral parts of the noble eightfold path. To borrow from a poetic image found in the discourses, mental tranquility and insight are a “swift pair of messengers,” capable of carrying the message of Nirvāṇa along the road of the noble eightfold path ([3], Vol. IV, p. 195).

The basic difference between samatha and vipassanā can be illustrated with the help of mindfulness of breathing, since this meditation practice can be developed in both modes. The difference here depends on what angle is taken when observing the breath, since emphasis on various phenomena related to the process of breathing stays in the realm of variegated sensory experience and thus is more geared toward the development of insight, while emphasis on just mentally knowing the presence of the breath leads to a unitary type of experience and is thus capable of producing deepening levels of mental tranquility.

In the early Buddhist discourses, the terms samatha and vipassanā seldom occur alone and most often are found together. This conveys the impression that their relationship should be one of coexistence and cooperation. A calm mind supports the development of insight and the presence of insight in turn facilitates the development of deeper levels of tranquility. Therefore, tranquility and insight are at their best when developed in skilful cooperation.

Concerning the interrelation between tranquility and insight, the discourses indicate that there is no fixed pattern to be followed in this respect. One type of practitioner may have gained mental tranquility but is not yet endowed with the higher wisdom of insight, while another may be endowed with the higher wisdom of insight without having gained mental tranquility ([2], Vol. II, p. 92). In both cases, an effort should be made to develop what is still lacking. Some may practice insight first and then develop tranquility, others may build up mental tranquility right at the outset and only then turn to insight, and still others may develop both in conjunction ([2], Vol. II, p. 157). According to early Buddhist meditation theory, any of these approaches is capable of leading to liberation, if eventually insight and tranquility are both brought into being. Thus, there appears to be no fixed rule, according to which the development of one of these two meditative qualities inevitably has to precede the other. Much rather, the task appears to be one of developing both in harmonious cooperation. As a stanza proclaims:

There is no meditative absorption for those without wisdom,

There is no wisdom without meditation,

Those who have meditative absorption and wisdom,

Are close to Nirvāṇa ([4], 372).