A Study of Citta
Citta is translated by: thought(s), mind, heart, mood, emotion, idea, reasoning, attitude, consciousness
Mano: mind, thought, inner sense.
Vinnana: consciousness, discriminative consciousness, rebirth-con-sciousness, relinking consciousness, cognition, intellect,intellection,intelligence
Many of the English terms are very vague. The reason may be either that the corresponding Pali terms are equally vague or that the exact meaning of them is not known.
Some of the English terms for the same Pali terms have a very different meaning (e.g. "mind" means an independent psychological agency; "thought" is probably intended to mean conscious processes
of a predominantly cognitive character, "heart" an emotional, evaluative center in human personality--if we then, for instance, find the passage in S II 273: "Ariye tunhibhave cittam santapehi, ariye tunhibhave cittam ekodim karohi, ariye tunhibhavc cittam santadaha" translated by
"Establish thy mind in the Ariyan silence. Lift up thy heart therein. Plant thy thought therein" - then we may well ask ourselves whether these different meanings of citta were intended by the Pali-writer or if the translator is just careless.) Psychological passages in translations of Pali texts have often
proved meaningless .Therefore, an investigation has seemed desirablc
Citta
I. Superordinated concept:--dhamma which is a vague term. used mainly as a collective term for all conscious phenomna. It is used for all psychological terms, even nibbana
2. Is Citta an entity or a process
We usually think of a machine as an entity: it has a certain structure and functions as a unit; it is limited in space and has a certain duration over time. If we, on thc other hand, were unable to see the machine itself but could study its functioning and its products, then we would speak in terms of processes: we could describe certain movements , the change from raw materials to finished products
We can make the same distinction in psychological matters and choose our words accordingly. When we use a word like "mind", we think of something rather permanent, and the momentary perceptions, feelings, impulses and imaginations arc said to be produced in it. The mind has a structure, it can produce processes, and it can be used as an instrument-so it is a typical entity.
On the other hand, the difference may not be so great on the psychological plane as on the physical. If you study your conscious experiences, perhaps you will at first find only a stream of processes. But after a while you will discover recurrent themes and process-sequences and you will find regularities and habits of thoughts. The processes are then fitted into a structure which is seen to be more or less fixed, more or less like an "entity".
So, although most of the continuity depends on processes or structures that are not conscious and therefore "behind the curtain", we may firmly believe in an entity like the "mind"
In order to decide whether citta is an entity or not, we must investigate whether it is described as independent or dependent, permanent or momentary , productive or produced, initiating or passive, actor or act.
It is possible to find passages where citta is clearly said to be a product:
"Ma ... akusalam cittam cinteyyatha" (S V 4I8), "Don't think unskilled citta"
-"Samudaya-dhammanUpassi va cittasmim viharati, vaya-dhamma-nupassi va cittasmim viharati." (D II 299). "He keeps on seeing an arising phenonlenon in citta , or he keeps on seeing a passing phenomenonn citta ."
Here, citta seems to mean "thought".
Usually citta seems much more personified to an independent agency. It has a will of its own:
".Bhikkhu cittam vase vatteti, no ... cittassa vasena vattati" (A IV 34),
"A monk makes his citta turn according to his wish; hc does not turn by the citta's wish". Further:" ... cittena niyati loko" (S I 39), "the world is led by citta ". According to D II 36, "Vipassissa ... cittam nami no dhamma-desanaya," "The citta of Vipassi was inclined not to preach the doctrine".-
Citta is an authority that can be pleased or displeased: " ... ayam me puggalo cittam n'aradheti" (M I 34T), "that person does not appeal to my citta".
And: " ... mayi cittam pasannam." (M II T 45), "your citta was pleased with me"
Citta reacts as an emotional center according to S I S3: "Niccam utrastam idam cittam". "This citta is always terrified", - and S II 226
"na ca na uppanno labhasakkarasiloko cittam. pariyadaya thassatiti", "and
when gains, favours, and flattery come to us, they shall not take lasting hold
of our citta".
In the very numerous passages where the improvement and development of citta is described, it is often done in wordings reminding us of some instrument which is to be improved by removing obstructing particles
(raga, dosa, moha , e.g. M II 27), by cleaning (cittam parisodheti, D I 71;
cittani virajayitva "cleansing their cittas", D II 274), by giving it support
(adharo, S V 20), by making it straight (cittanl attano ujukam akamsu~ S 126; ujum karoti, Dh 33) like a bow, or makes it luminious (sappabhasalm cittam bhaveti, "creates a luminious citta "
Citta is compared to gold free from defilements; it can also be done luminous by concentration on light).
In this way, citta is made mudu and kammanna , "pliablc" and "fit for work" (A IV
421; cf S V 92 and A I256). In other cascs, thc terminol.ogy uscd reminds
rather of the taming of aminals , e.g. cittam... dantam guttam rakkhitam sarhvutam, "the citta that is tamed, controlled, guarded and restrained"
(A I 7)cittam, abhininnameti, "he bends down his citta " (A II 211)
In all these and similar cases, citta seems to bc conceived predominantly as an entity. But in perhaps thc majority of the 240 passages included in this study of citta, the matter cannot be strictly decided. There seems to be a very gradual transition from the one extreme to the other. We may
conclude that citta often is an entity that acts independcntly or as an instrumental unit but that the word on the othcr hand may be used for the produced processes themselves
3 Is Citta the Self?
Only once is it explicitly denied that citta is thc self (S II 94), whilc it
is very often denied that Vinnana and the other Khandha are the self. When
H. V. Guenther in "Philosophy and psychology in the Abhidhamma"
(Lucknow 1957) constructs diagrams illustrating different Abhidhamma-
views on the mind, hc places citta in thc center of a number of concentric
circles. This can only mean that he considers citta as the self around which
cverything is arranged. In the Nikayas there arc only indirect indications
that the person identifies himself with citta. It happcns, e g., that the gram-
matical subject in coordinated sentences is first citta, then seemingly without
any special reason becomes the person himself: "Ujugatam ev' assa tasmim
samaye cittam hoti Tathagatam arabbha, ujugatacitto kho pana ... ariya-
savako labhati atthavedam, labhati dhammavedam ... D "At such time
his citta is firmly fixed on the Tathagata; with upright heart the Ariyan dis-
ciple wins knowledge of the welfare, hc wins knowledge of thc doctrine, .. " (A V 329).
Texts take care to distinguish between the person and his citta. A few examples
will illustrate this. "Aham imina cittena nikato vancito paladdho". "1
have been defrauded, deceived and cheated by this mind" (M I 5II). "Cit-
tam te tatthe g:amenti dure", "They send their citta far away in that (dispute)"
(SN 390).
In conclusion: citta is not the self but it often stands for the person and
the identification is then not far away
4 The Ultimate fate of citta
What happens to citta in death? S V 370 provides an answer: " ...
tassa yo hi khvayam kayo rupi ... tam idheva kaka va khadanti ... yanca
khvassa cittam digharattam saddhaparibhavitam sila- suta- caga-paribha-
vitam, tam uddhagami hoti visesagitni", "though this formed body of
his be devoured by crows (or other animals), - yet his citta, if longtime practiced in faith, virtue, learning and renunciation, moves upward and goes to distinction".
Herc we arc very close to an un-Buddhistic soul-
thcory, according to which citta survivcs death. It can be found also in
other passages, where it is connected with the idea of rebirth. "Avidva
manaso vitakke hurahuram dhavati bhanta-citto" (U 37). "Without
understanding the thoughts of mano he runs with restless citta from existence
to existence". - "Anavattidhammam- me cittam. kamabhavaya-ti pannaya
cittam. suparicitam. hoti" (A IV 402) " 'My citta is not of such nature that it
will return to the plane of sense-pleasures'.-(knowing this) his citta is well provided with wisdom". In these passages we find an indication that citta
in normal cases is reborn. The same is implied in D III 258 "Tassa evam hoti-'Aho vataham kayassa bheda param marana khattiya-mahasalanam va brahmanamahasalanam va gahapati-mahasalanam va sahavyatam uppaj-jeyyan ti'. So tam cittam dahati, tam cittam adhitthati, tam cittam bhaveti.
Tassa tam cittam hine vimuttam uttarim abhavitam tatr' uppattiya samvattati".
"He thinks, 'Ah! if only I may be reborn at the dissolution of
the body after death as one amongst wealthy nobles, or bralunins, or house-
holders!' This citta he holds fixed, firmly established, and develops it.-His
citta set free in a lower range, and not developed to anything higher, conduces
to rebirth within that range." This passage is, however, a little doubtful,
as citta here, at least in the middle sentence, has a clear process-meaning and
therefore may be used simply for vinnana
When, in other contexts, the process-meaning seems to be intended,
c.g., in D II 299, it is stressed that citta "is something that comes to be"
(samudaya-dhamma) and "something that passes away" (vaya-dhamma).
It is often said that citta is Suvimutta, "liberated" or Vimuccati "is liberated". What does it mean,? .
(D II 8I). "Citta, when thoroughly developed through wisdom, is set quite free from obsessions, that is to say from the obsessions of sensuality, becoming, wrong views and
ignorance" . Another definition from S III 13, according
to which citta is freed through the destruction of the desire directed towards
thc five Khandha. still more clear is the passagc S III 45 "If
a monk's citta is unattached to (feeling, perception, the
activities, consciousness) and is free from it without giving it support through
the asava(influx)-then it is steadfast by its freedom, content by its steadfastness,
through its contentment it does not crave further: and free from craving
it by itself attains to parinibbana". As freedom from the asava is usually
mentioned as the final attainment through which arahant-ship is won, we
have ample evidence that citta is thought to be that which reaches the state of
nibbana. When the ultimate realization has come, even then he knows that it has come and
what it means. Therefore, some part of his conscious personality is left,
and everything points to the fact that this function is attributed to citta
In addition to the already quoted evidence, let me point to a passage in A I 8,
where it is said: "panihitena cittena ... nibbanam sacchikarissati" "with
a citta that is well directed ... he will realize nibbana." So, when the work
is done, the instrument is still there, registrating the fact..
Mano: mind, thought, inner sense.
Vinnana: consciousness, discriminative consciousness, rebirth-con-sciousness, relinking consciousness, cognition, intellect,intellection,intelligence
Many of the English terms are very vague. The reason may be either that the corresponding Pali terms are equally vague or that the exact meaning of them is not known.
Some of the English terms for the same Pali terms have a very different meaning (e.g. "mind" means an independent psychological agency; "thought" is probably intended to mean conscious processes
of a predominantly cognitive character, "heart" an emotional, evaluative center in human personality--if we then, for instance, find the passage in S II 273: "Ariye tunhibhave cittam santapehi, ariye tunhibhave cittam ekodim karohi, ariye tunhibhavc cittam santadaha" translated by
"Establish thy mind in the Ariyan silence. Lift up thy heart therein. Plant thy thought therein" - then we may well ask ourselves whether these different meanings of citta were intended by the Pali-writer or if the translator is just careless.) Psychological passages in translations of Pali texts have often
proved meaningless .Therefore, an investigation has seemed desirablc
Citta
I. Superordinated concept:--dhamma which is a vague term. used mainly as a collective term for all conscious phenomna. It is used for all psychological terms, even nibbana
2. Is Citta an entity or a process
We usually think of a machine as an entity: it has a certain structure and functions as a unit; it is limited in space and has a certain duration over time. If we, on thc other hand, were unable to see the machine itself but could study its functioning and its products, then we would speak in terms of processes: we could describe certain movements , the change from raw materials to finished products
We can make the same distinction in psychological matters and choose our words accordingly. When we use a word like "mind", we think of something rather permanent, and the momentary perceptions, feelings, impulses and imaginations arc said to be produced in it. The mind has a structure, it can produce processes, and it can be used as an instrument-so it is a typical entity.
On the other hand, the difference may not be so great on the psychological plane as on the physical. If you study your conscious experiences, perhaps you will at first find only a stream of processes. But after a while you will discover recurrent themes and process-sequences and you will find regularities and habits of thoughts. The processes are then fitted into a structure which is seen to be more or less fixed, more or less like an "entity".
So, although most of the continuity depends on processes or structures that are not conscious and therefore "behind the curtain", we may firmly believe in an entity like the "mind"
In order to decide whether citta is an entity or not, we must investigate whether it is described as independent or dependent, permanent or momentary , productive or produced, initiating or passive, actor or act.
It is possible to find passages where citta is clearly said to be a product:
"Ma ... akusalam cittam cinteyyatha" (S V 4I8), "Don't think unskilled citta"
-"Samudaya-dhammanUpassi va cittasmim viharati, vaya-dhamma-nupassi va cittasmim viharati." (D II 299). "He keeps on seeing an arising phenonlenon in citta , or he keeps on seeing a passing phenomenonn citta ."
Here, citta seems to mean "thought".
Usually citta seems much more personified to an independent agency. It has a will of its own:
".Bhikkhu cittam vase vatteti, no ... cittassa vasena vattati" (A IV 34),
"A monk makes his citta turn according to his wish; hc does not turn by the citta's wish". Further:" ... cittena niyati loko" (S I 39), "the world is led by citta ". According to D II 36, "Vipassissa ... cittam nami no dhamma-desanaya," "The citta of Vipassi was inclined not to preach the doctrine".-
Citta is an authority that can be pleased or displeased: " ... ayam me puggalo cittam n'aradheti" (M I 34T), "that person does not appeal to my citta".
And: " ... mayi cittam pasannam." (M II T 45), "your citta was pleased with me"
Citta reacts as an emotional center according to S I S3: "Niccam utrastam idam cittam". "This citta is always terrified", - and S II 226
"na ca na uppanno labhasakkarasiloko cittam. pariyadaya thassatiti", "and
when gains, favours, and flattery come to us, they shall not take lasting hold
of our citta".
In the very numerous passages where the improvement and development of citta is described, it is often done in wordings reminding us of some instrument which is to be improved by removing obstructing particles
(raga, dosa, moha , e.g. M II 27), by cleaning (cittam parisodheti, D I 71;
cittani virajayitva "cleansing their cittas", D II 274), by giving it support
(adharo, S V 20), by making it straight (cittanl attano ujukam akamsu~ S 126; ujum karoti, Dh 33) like a bow, or makes it luminious (sappabhasalm cittam bhaveti, "creates a luminious citta "
Citta is compared to gold free from defilements; it can also be done luminous by concentration on light).
In this way, citta is made mudu and kammanna , "pliablc" and "fit for work" (A IV
421; cf S V 92 and A I256). In other cascs, thc terminol.ogy uscd reminds
rather of the taming of aminals , e.g. cittam... dantam guttam rakkhitam sarhvutam, "the citta that is tamed, controlled, guarded and restrained"
(A I 7)cittam, abhininnameti, "he bends down his citta " (A II 211)
In all these and similar cases, citta seems to bc conceived predominantly as an entity. But in perhaps thc majority of the 240 passages included in this study of citta, the matter cannot be strictly decided. There seems to be a very gradual transition from the one extreme to the other. We may
conclude that citta often is an entity that acts independcntly or as an instrumental unit but that the word on the othcr hand may be used for the produced processes themselves
3 Is Citta the Self?
Only once is it explicitly denied that citta is thc self (S II 94), whilc it
is very often denied that Vinnana and the other Khandha are the self. When
H. V. Guenther in "Philosophy and psychology in the Abhidhamma"
(Lucknow 1957) constructs diagrams illustrating different Abhidhamma-
views on the mind, hc places citta in thc center of a number of concentric
circles. This can only mean that he considers citta as the self around which
cverything is arranged. In the Nikayas there arc only indirect indications
that the person identifies himself with citta. It happcns, e g., that the gram-
matical subject in coordinated sentences is first citta, then seemingly without
any special reason becomes the person himself: "Ujugatam ev' assa tasmim
samaye cittam hoti Tathagatam arabbha, ujugatacitto kho pana ... ariya-
savako labhati atthavedam, labhati dhammavedam ... D "At such time
his citta is firmly fixed on the Tathagata; with upright heart the Ariyan dis-
ciple wins knowledge of the welfare, hc wins knowledge of thc doctrine, .. " (A V 329).
Texts take care to distinguish between the person and his citta. A few examples
will illustrate this. "Aham imina cittena nikato vancito paladdho". "1
have been defrauded, deceived and cheated by this mind" (M I 5II). "Cit-
tam te tatthe g:amenti dure", "They send their citta far away in that (dispute)"
(SN 390).
In conclusion: citta is not the self but it often stands for the person and
the identification is then not far away
4 The Ultimate fate of citta
What happens to citta in death? S V 370 provides an answer: " ...
tassa yo hi khvayam kayo rupi ... tam idheva kaka va khadanti ... yanca
khvassa cittam digharattam saddhaparibhavitam sila- suta- caga-paribha-
vitam, tam uddhagami hoti visesagitni", "though this formed body of
his be devoured by crows (or other animals), - yet his citta, if longtime practiced in faith, virtue, learning and renunciation, moves upward and goes to distinction".
Herc we arc very close to an un-Buddhistic soul-
thcory, according to which citta survivcs death. It can be found also in
other passages, where it is connected with the idea of rebirth. "Avidva
manaso vitakke hurahuram dhavati bhanta-citto" (U 37). "Without
understanding the thoughts of mano he runs with restless citta from existence
to existence". - "Anavattidhammam- me cittam. kamabhavaya-ti pannaya
cittam. suparicitam. hoti" (A IV 402) " 'My citta is not of such nature that it
will return to the plane of sense-pleasures'.-(knowing this) his citta is well provided with wisdom". In these passages we find an indication that citta
in normal cases is reborn. The same is implied in D III 258 "Tassa evam hoti-'Aho vataham kayassa bheda param marana khattiya-mahasalanam va brahmanamahasalanam va gahapati-mahasalanam va sahavyatam uppaj-jeyyan ti'. So tam cittam dahati, tam cittam adhitthati, tam cittam bhaveti.
Tassa tam cittam hine vimuttam uttarim abhavitam tatr' uppattiya samvattati".
"He thinks, 'Ah! if only I may be reborn at the dissolution of
the body after death as one amongst wealthy nobles, or bralunins, or house-
holders!' This citta he holds fixed, firmly established, and develops it.-His
citta set free in a lower range, and not developed to anything higher, conduces
to rebirth within that range." This passage is, however, a little doubtful,
as citta here, at least in the middle sentence, has a clear process-meaning and
therefore may be used simply for vinnana
When, in other contexts, the process-meaning seems to be intended,
c.g., in D II 299, it is stressed that citta "is something that comes to be"
(samudaya-dhamma) and "something that passes away" (vaya-dhamma).
It is often said that citta is Suvimutta, "liberated" or Vimuccati "is liberated". What does it mean,? .
(D II 8I). "Citta, when thoroughly developed through wisdom, is set quite free from obsessions, that is to say from the obsessions of sensuality, becoming, wrong views and
ignorance" . Another definition from S III 13, according
to which citta is freed through the destruction of the desire directed towards
thc five Khandha. still more clear is the passagc S III 45 "If
a monk's citta is unattached to (feeling, perception, the
activities, consciousness) and is free from it without giving it support through
the asava(influx)-then it is steadfast by its freedom, content by its steadfastness,
through its contentment it does not crave further: and free from craving
it by itself attains to parinibbana". As freedom from the asava is usually
mentioned as the final attainment through which arahant-ship is won, we
have ample evidence that citta is thought to be that which reaches the state of
nibbana. When the ultimate realization has come, even then he knows that it has come and
what it means. Therefore, some part of his conscious personality is left,
and everything points to the fact that this function is attributed to citta
In addition to the already quoted evidence, let me point to a passage in A I 8,
where it is said: "panihitena cittena ... nibbanam sacchikarissati" "with
a citta that is well directed ... he will realize nibbana." So, when the work
is done, the instrument is still there, registrating the fact..
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