Yoni

The Sanskrit term yoni means the womb or on a more physical level the female genitalia, in particular ­vagina and uterus. Material representations focus on the shape of the vulva as pars pro toto. As in most cultures, male and female genitalia have been symbols of fertility and procreation in an immediate sense. However, Hindu theology and philosophy have developed the symbolism of the yoni further; it does not primarily or exclusively serve as an allusion to the physical realities but on an abstract level represents prakṛti , the active force of creation as such and the womb of the universe. 
The best-known occurrence of the yoni is in combination with the liṅga , the non-anthropomorphic cult icon of Śiva. The pītha or pedestal that supports this liṅga in the countless examples venerated in Hindu temples and family shrines is understood by most believers as a yoni, though in many extant examples, the rectangular shape of the pedestal with its spout is similar to that of the cult images of other Hindu gods. Several myths provide narrations on how this combination first came into existence. The function of the yoni according to myths like that of the ṛṣis of the Devadāruvana (Pine Forest) is not that of a merely passive receptacle. The ṛṣis, offended by the presence of the naked ascetic and his licentious behavior, uttered a curse that caused Śiva's liṅga to fall off. The severed liṅga moved through the entire universe threatening to burn everything, it is only the yoni that has the power to stabilize and thus to pacify this otherwise uncontrollable membrum virile. In this myth, the active nature and inherent power of the force symbolized by the yoni is easily perceivable. In consequence the yoni is, besides present in the context of the well-documented liṅga-yoni images, used as a symbol and place of manifestation of female deities outside Śaiva cult contexts. Particularly goddesses rising to prominence in the wake of developing Śākta theology (see also Mahādevī) and representing the idea of the active female power ( śakti ) being the origin of the universe and thus superior to the passive male one can be represented by the yoni as a cult icon (Kalidos, 1990, 118). 
Probably the best-known example of a site related to the veneration of a goddess in the form of a yoni is the Kāmākhyā Temple located on Nīlācala (“Blue Hill”) nearby Guwahati, Assam. The central cult object in this temple is a natural rock formation in a cave below ground level resembling a vulva filled with water by an underground spring. The sanctums (garbhagṛha, lit. womb house) of the temples of several related goddesses in the area contain similar cult objects. The site has been included in Śaiva mythology as the place where the vulva of Satī fell to earth while Śiva carried her corpse; Satī had killed herself after her husband Śiva was excluded from the sacrifice offered by her father Dakṣa. Yet, the roots of the cult in Guwahati seem to go back to an independent local goddess cult (Shin, 2010, 4­–6). Similar goddess cults focusing on a yoni as the central object of worship in temples exist in Orissa and Jammu (Sinha, 2006, 100); Devī temples in Tamil Nadu contain cult images of a female with exposed vulva. It cannot be ascertained, however, whether these still enigmatic stone sculptures of females lying on their back with their bent legs spread and drawn up in a position often described as “giving birth” are actually intended as “secondary personifications” originating in the abstract shape of the yoni or are in any way related to the use of the non-anthropomorphic yoni in temple cults (Kalidos, 1990, 124, 126). 
In ritual diagrams (yantras), the yoni, which is also termed trikoṇa (“triangular”; Pischel, 1907, 176–178), is represented by a geometrical abbreviation in the shape of a triangle pointing downward. It is used to depict the female principle or power, whereas the triangle pointing upward represents the male principle. A survey of rock shelters along the river Mahānadī has brought to light paintings of such triangles, which have been interpreted as prehistoric and could constitute the oldest traces of such geometrical yoni shapes (Panda, 2004, 68). Further research in these rock paintings may ascertain the timeframe for the use of these shelters and may lead to a more precise dating of the paintings. 
Besides functioning as a symbol of particular goddesses or of the female creative power in general, the yoni can serve as a means to indicate the transition from one stage to the next in initiation rites (see saṃskāras) at different stages of the life of a dvija; such an initiation is understood as being born into a new stage of life. Some early descriptions of such rites mention a model yoni made from precious metal or other material among the objects used (Kaelber, 1978, 67-69). Objects like clay pots and other vessels can also be used to symbolize a yoni in rituals; epic myths, such as that of the birth of Skanda-Kārttikeya from a pot in the Mahābhārata , and their early depictions in reliefs from Mathura reflect this concept. Whether the so-called “ringstones” (Sharma, 1997-1998, 118-119) – circular stone objects with a central hole and with surfaces that are sometimes decorated with floral motifs and anthropomorphic figures, dated to the 3rd-1st centuries BCE, and their undecorated precursors from several Indus Valley civilization sites (c. 2500-1900 BCE) – can actually be regarded as such representations of a yoni is uncertain, as none of the known examples has been found in a context bringing to light how they were used (Srinivasan, 1984, 77, 87).

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