Asceticism

1. Greece and Rome.

The term “asceticism,” the Western meaning of which was shaped by Christianity, derives from Gk ἄσκησις/áskēsis, a noun denoting activity; ἄσκεῖν/askeîn originally meant “to craft/to decorate.” In the 5th century bce, the primary meaning became “to train/to exercise.” The exercise was mostly physical (gymnastics, military training). The soul/body dualism (Body and soul) that shaped philosophical anthropology since the Socratic revolution led to the appearance of the care of the soul next to the care of the body (Xenophon Mem. 1.2, 19). This hierarchical dichotomy did not bring about a depreciation of the body as an aesthetic object. Neither Plato nor Aristotle were interested in asceticism. The Cynics have often been wrongly associated with asceticism. While they did use certain elements that we assign to asceticism, they started out from different premises and pursued different intentions. True to their principle of overcoming nature, they speak of poverty and of efforts to control the natural drives, though these austerities (e.g. homelessness) were sometimes advocated as ways to increase pleasure. The actionism of the Cynics, finding expression in austerities, was not meant to gain increased power, as is usually true of ascetic exercises; its goal was to deconstruct hegemonic structures. Neither do the rules governing the conduct of life of the Pythagoreans, which go back to archaic forms of community, fit the definition of asceticism. For the Pythagoreans, dietary rules were a matter of dietetics; initiation into the community included a period during which the neophyte was forbidden to speak.

In the 1st century bce, the concept of asceticism changed significantly: the element of self-denial became dominant. Recent scholarship has rejected the theory that this change was encouraged by Philo of Alexandria (but see VI below). Characteristic features of asceticism (radical depreciation of the body, flight from the world) are found in Gnosticism (see 2 below) and Neoplatonism. But even the efforts of the Neoplatonists were primarily an individualistic, elitist exercise of the intellect for the purpose of returning to an intelligible mode of being and of effecting a mystical union with the divine. Beginning with Porphyry and the neo-Pythagoreans, however, greater emphasis was placed on the relationship between physical abstinence and soteriology. The Neoplatonists occasionally expressed contempt for forms of Christian asceticism (Synesius, Dion 251f.).

Latin does not have a direct equivalent for áskēsis that would integrate both the “positive” and the “negative” aspects of the term. The commonest paraphrases are exercitatio, cura, continentia, and abstinentia. The Romans often derived the determination to renounce the full enjoyment of the pleasures of life from philosophy. The Stoic principle of being guided by nature led to a focus on the cultivation of a healthy body (Sen. Ep. 119, 15) and on the proper balance between body and soul (Musonius, Fragmenta 6.25. 8f.). The requirement of abstinence so frequently discussed by the (later) Roman Stoics derives from the principle of indifferentia toward worldly goods that aimed at overcoming suffering.

The cultic observances of the Greeks and Romans included forms of temporary abnegation (fasting, abstinence from sexual intercourse) as part of the ritual, which was intended to enable immediate contact with the deity, keep evil spirits away from the cultic precincts, or to induce mantic capabilities. The demands imposed by such observances as the Attic Thesmophoria and the Eleusinian (Eleusis) Mysteries (fasting) or the Roman cult of Vesta (30 years of virginity for its priestesses) should be seen in this context.

2. Gnosticism.

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries ce, Gnosticism (Gnosis/Gnosticism), based on a dualism of light and darkness, used asceticism as an instrument of world rejection. Mani, for example, imposed on his disciples the asceticism of the “three seals”: the seal of the mouth, which required strict fasting and total avoidance of meat, seafood, wine, and alcoholic beverages; the seal of the hands, which forbade agricultural labor, the felling of trees, and the harvesting of fruit and vegetables except for the nourishment of the chosen ones; and the seal of the body, inhibiting procreation so that enlightened souls would no longer be imprisoned in bodies of darkness. This asceticism, which totally rejected the body because it considered the whole of creation to be under the protection of the archons, went hand in hand with the duty of constant missionary activity.

II. Old Testament

The phenomenon of asceticism in the modern sense of the word, as a deliberate abstinence from the habits of customary life and nourishment for medical, psychological, or devotional reasons, is not found in the OT. Possible precursors are the so-called rituals of self-humiliation, which may be understood as a temporary suspension or diminution of ordinary life. Their causes – grief or need – suggest that they were not so much acts of voluntary asceticism on the part of an individual as conventional responses to specific situations of distress. The best-known practices of this sort are individual fasting during a period of mourning and collective fasting in a time of crisis or in the context of a collective remembrance of a desperate situation in the past. The great fasting ritual combines several rites of self-humiliation such as tearing one's clothing, shaving one's head, rolling in the dust, and abstaining from nourishment during the day (cf. Jonah 3) into a symbolic relationship structure that interrupts life for a certain period, thus symbolically leading to the edge of death. The mythological and ritual occurrences of such rites of self-humiliation in Mesopotamian and Syrian texts show that they originally served to ward off the divine and demonic powers of death and of the underworld. As symbolic representations of death, they afforded protection against the life-threatening powers of death.

It is in this sense that the fasting ritual in the Nineveh episode of Jonah 3:10 brings about the “regret of YHWH” concerning the predicted calamity. In this text from a later period in Israel's religious history, the notions of “turnabout” and finally of “repentance” (Neh 9) enable a theological interpretation of the fasting ritual. Thus, the symbolic anticipation of death, initially a purely ritual act, is expanded by a verbal confession of misconduct and a commitment to God, whose righteousness is demonstrated by the impending calamity. This marks a decisive milestone in the religio-historical development of asceticism, inasmuch as ritual elements of self-humiliation are now intentionally associated with a change of consciousness and become explicit on the narrative level of the text.

II. New Testament

The beginnings of Christianity were preceded by the ascetic movement of John the Baptist, who lived as an ascetic hermit in the desert (Mark 1:6 parr.; Matt 11:18 par. Q). His eremitic way of life was due to his calling to become a prophet in the last days. Mark 2:18 shows that John's disciples followed specific fasting rules.

Jesus clearly distinguished himself from John's movement by not imposing specific rules of fasting on his followers. The logion in Matt 11:18f. par. Q presupposes that Jesus did not present himself as an advocate of special penitential fasting. We may also cite the traditions that depict the earthly Jesus enjoying table fellowship (e.g. Mark 2:15; Luke 14:1; John 2:1ff.). But Jesus' preparatory fasting in the desert (Matt 4:1ff. par.) shows that he did not reject fasting in principle. Matt 6:16ff. presupposes that his followers practiced ordinary fasting; it merely forbids hypocritical boasting. On the other hand, Jesus' entire message can be seen under the heading of asceticism, inasmuch as it calls (in view of the imminence of the kingdom of God) for absolute obedience to God's demands. The gift of God's kingdom makes all the gifts of the created world irrelevant, opening the heart to the undivided love of God (Matt 13:44ff.). This is the wellspring of Christian asceticism.

Highly significant was the discipleship movement of the earthly Jesus. Jesus did not invite all his followers to become outright disciples, but only a small circle destined to share his life (Mark 1:16–20 parr.; 2:14 parr.). What was demanded was an eschatological anticipation of the coming kingdom of God paired with undivided allegiance, with no reservations (Luke 9:62; Matt 8:22 par. Q; Luke 14:26 par. Q). Those who are called to discipleship must forsake the protective conditions of social environment, renounce the guarantee of livelihood, renounce possessions (Mark 10:17ff. parr.) and domestic life (cf. e.g. Luke 14:26 par. Q; Mark 10:28ff. parr.), and become homeless (Matt 8:19f. par. Q). They must enter into the openness of radical trust in God (Luke 12:31 par. Q). Finally, discipleship requires a readiness to suffer (Matt 10:38/Luke 14:27 Q; Mark 8:34 parr. – pre-Easter origins of the logion?). None of this has to do with a dualistic rejection of the world, but with a “radical freedom of the heart” (Rahner, 449).

There is only fragmentary evidence about the beginnings of asceticism in the post-Easter period. Mark 2:20 par. suggests a special form of fasting which is characteristic of the new group, possibly on the day of Jesus' death.

The motivation and particular nature of early Christian asceticism are clearer in Paul. The relevant instructions are explained with the radical break that takes place upon joining the church. Through faith and baptism, the Christian has died in his former humanity (Rom 14:7ff.; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:15; Gal 2:20) – with the consequent imperative to actually fulfill what he has become ontologically, to kill off whatever sins and temptations have remained alive in him (Gal 5:16f.; Rom 8:13; 13:14; cf. Col 3:5). It is important to keep the body under control (1 Cor 9:26f.; cf. Gal 5:23; Tit 1:8; 2 Pet 1:6). Christians must remain alert and sober (1 Thess 5:5ff.; cf. Eph 6:18; Rom 13:11ff.). Eph 6:10ff. calls out the militia of Christ against the demonic powers. But faith and baptism have also freed the Christians from the shackles that bound them to the values of the world that is passing away, from which they feel a profound inner distance (1 Cor 7:29ff.; Rom 12:1). Between them and the world stands the cross (Gal 6:14). Within all this, Christian life has an ascetic component, motivated by the new eschatological being (“eschatological asceticism”).

The issue of sexual asceticism constitutes a theme of its own. The apostle's reply to the Corinthians' questions (1 Cor 7) rejects the notion of an obligatory association of baptism withcelibacy; marriage is treated quite soberly as the “normal state” of Christian life. Voluntary (!) celibacy is only for those who are unmarried or have a special vocation; temporary continence on the part of a married couple is provisionally permitted. But Paul (who was unmarried) does not deny that voluntary celibacy is in fact preferable. He supports this view on mere pragmatic grounds in 7:28; in 7:32ff. he explicitely bases it on faith in Christ: renunciation of marriage allows greater freedom for the affairs of the Lord. (At this stage of reflection, marriage is not yet directly founded on faith in Christ; this step is not taken until Eph 5:22ff.). Scholars disagree as to whether 1 Cor 7:36ff. already presupposes matrimonium spirituale. The entire chapter is characterized by careful discretion: the apostle distinguishes what is desirable, what is generally necessary, and what must be avoided by all means. Christian asceticism is beginning to acquire a concrete shape.

The post-Pauline period witnessed a stronger rejection of false asceticism (Col 2:16ff.); in 1 Tim 4:3f., it takes on the character of a conflict with Gnostic dualism, which was to be determining for the future. Now the church had to distinguish its position from extrinsic dualistic ideas that were hostile to the created world.

The Johannine literature represents a distinct corpus. Here as well, the rejection of the world is not dualistic but eschatological, based on the experiencing of truth in Christ and the Paraclete. Those who know the truth can see through the delusions of the (fallen) world and free themselves inwardly from their hold (1 John 2:15–17).

Indian Religions

By the 6th century at the latest, Indian asceticism (saṃnyāsa, tapas) in the form of life-long chastity, physical mortification, peregrination, and begging, with the spiritual goal of deliverance from rebirth ( Mokṣa, Nirvāṇa ) or of attaining “magical” powers (siddhi), had arisen in ancient India, the classic land of otherworldly asceticism (Max Weber) seeking escape from the world. It probably developed through the encounter of immigrant “Aryan” tribes with the indigenous population – the early Vedic period knew nothing of ascetics – and in the context of an incipient economy of surplus. The early ascetic movements – including the historical Buddha (I) Śākyamuni with his disciples and Mahāvīra, the founder of Jainism, a religion of extreme asceticism – were hostile to the Brahmin and their sacrificial ritual, and hence also to the Veda (Vedas) and the housefire.

The variety of Indian ascetics is enormous (Sanskrit saṃnyāsin, yogī; Hindī: baba, sādhu; cf.Āśrama ). Practitioners of more mystical and spiritual renunciation compete with ascetics who severely mortify the flesh; after trying and rejecting the latter, the historical Buddha himself proclaimed the Middle Way instead. Both groups compete with the Brahmins and other priests for supreme religious authority. There are self-sufficient hermits who have severed almost all ties with society, teachers living ascetic lives (guru, svāmī), sects of monks and nuns in their abodes (maṭha, āśrama), priestly ascetics in charge of temples, armed militant ascetics (nāgas), beggars who publicly torture themselves, and many more. Only martyrs are rare. In most cases initiation (dīkṣā) by a master is necessary, sometimes conceived as a ritual death. A cult of gurus and founders is widespread. Ascetic practices include celibacy, peregrination, monodiets (nothing but milk or fruit), votive fasting, votive silence, extreme bodily mortification, and yoga exercises. Special significance is ascribed to fire, the focus of life for ascetic sects: tapas means both “heat” and “asceticism”; the ashes (vibhūti) that many ascetics rub over their bodies are considered holy and medicinal.

Since the 10th or 11th century, groups of ascetics have increasingly joined together in communities (pantha, saṇgha, sampradhāya), distinguished spiritually by their founders and teachings, and outwardly by marks of membership painted on their foreheads: Śaivas usually use horizontal lines, Vaiṣṇavas vertical ones. The two best-known groups are: (a) the Śaiva Daśanāmīs, usually clad in orange robes, who trace their origin to Śaṇkara (c. 8th cent.) as their founder and espouse a non-dualism, according to which the world is an illusion (māyā;Hinduism), the supreme being (Brahman) without attributes, and deliverance is only attainable through knowledge (jñāna); and (b) the Vaiṣṇava Rāmānandīs, who still wear the sacred cord; probably the largest sect in northern India, they trace their origin to their founder Rāmānanda (13th/14th cent.) and ascribe deliverance not just to their own endeavors but to a god (e.g. Rāma = Íśvara or Brahman) with whom they strive to achieve mystical union and for whose act of mercy they hope.